Author:

The lamentation for a fallen city was a well-known literary genre in the ancient Near East. One of the oldest known is the “Lamentation for the Destruction of Ur,” written in Mesopotamia in the twentieth century B.C.E., and several others are known. The biblical exemplar of the form is the book of Lamentations, comprising five laments over the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in the sixth century B.C.E. The scroll 4Q179 is clearly modeled after the biblical Lamentations and quotes from it occasionally. It is unclear whether this lament describes a historical incident. Between 586 B.C.E. and 70 C.E., the Holy City was not completely destroyed, but it suffered many conquests, most notably at the hands of the Syrian king Antiochus IV-Eplphanes, who, according to Josephus, robbed the Temple, took thousands captive, pillaged the city, and burned down many of the finest buildings (Ant. 12.5.4). This ordeal, which helped to incite the Maccabean war for independence, may well have inspired this lament.

Frag. 1 Col. 1 2[ . . . ] all our misdeeds and it is not within our power; for we did not obey [ . . . ] 3[ . . . ] Judah, that all these things should befall us, by evil 4[ . . . ] his covenant.
Woe to us 5[ . . . ] has become burned by fire and overthrown 6[ . . . ] our distinction, and there is nothing pleasing in it, in [ . . . ] 7[ . . . ] his holy courts have become 8[ . . . ] Jerusalem, city of 9[the sanctuary, ~has been hande d over] to wild animals, and there is no [ . . . ] and her avenues [ . . . ] all her fine buildings are desolate [ . . . ] there are no pilgrims in them, all the cities of [Judah . . . ] our inheritance has become like the desert, no [ . . . ] ‘we no longer hear rejoicing, and [there is none]. who seeks ~4[God . . . no] one to heal our wounds. All our enemies [ . . . ] our offenses [ . . . ] our sins.

Col. 2 Woe to us, for the wrath of God has come upon [ . . . ] 2that we should congregate with the dead 3[ . . . ] like an unloved wife Is[rael . . . neglects her babies, and my dear people have become] cruel [ . . . ] young men are desolate, the children of [ . . . fleeing] 6from winte when their hands are weak [ . . . ] 7Ash~heaps are now the home of the house of [Israel . . . ] 8they ask for water, but there is no attendant [ . . . ] 9those who were worth their weight [in gold . . . ] there is nothing to delight them, those who drew their strength from scarlet [clothing :.; . . ] nor fine gold, their garments bearing jewelry [ . . . no longer] do my hands touch purple stuff, [ . . . ] has risen [ . . . ] the sensitive women of Zion with them [ . . . ]

Frag. 2 4[“How] lonely [she sits], the city [once full of people!Ó (Lam. 1:1) . . . ] 5[ . . . ] the princess of all the nations is as desolate as an abandoned woman, and all: her daughters are likewise abandoned. 6[ . . . ] like a woman abandoned and miserable, whose husband has left her All her fine buildings and [walls] 7are like a barren woman,all her streets are like awoman confined [ . . . ] like a woman whose life is bitter 8and a11 her daughters are like those in mourning for [their] husbands [ . . . ] like those bereft 90f their only children, Jerusalem keeps on weeping [ . . . tears] on her cheek for her children. . .

4Q271(Df)
Parchment
Copied late first century B.C.E.
Height 10.9 cm (4 1/4 in.), length 9.3 cm (3 5/8 in.)
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (1)
The Damascus Document is a collection of rules and instructions reflecting the practices of a sectarian community. It includes two elements. The first is an admonition that implores the congregation to remain faithful to the covenant of those who retreated from Judea to the “Land of Damascus.” The second lists statutes dealing with vows and oaths, the tribunal, witnesses and judges, purification of water, Sabbath laws, and ritual cleanliness. The right-hand margin is incomplete. The left-hand margin was sewn to another piece of parchment, as evidenced by the remaining stitches.
In 1896, noted Talmud scholar and educator Solomon Schechter discovered sectarian compositions which later were found to be medieval versions of the Damascus Document. Schechter’s find in a synagogue storeroom near Cairo, almost fifty years before the Qumran discoveries, may be regarded as the true starting point of modern scroll research.

References
Baumgarten, J. “The Laws of the Damascus Document in Current Research.” In The Damascus Document Reconsidered. Edited by M. Broshi. Jerusalem, 1992. Written by Baltimore Hebrew University scholar Joseph Baumgarten, this 1992 imprint includes an analysis of the Damascus Document and its relation to Jewish Law, or halakhah.
Rabin, C. The Zadokite Documents. Oxford, 1958.
Schechter, S. Fragments of a Zadokite Work: Documents of Jewish Sectaries, vol. 1. Cambridge, England, 1910.
English Translation of Damascus Document (Brit Damesek)

4Q271(Df)
Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (1)
…with money…
…[his means did not] suffice to [return it to him] and the year [for redemption approaches?]…
…and may God release him? from his sins. Let not [ ] in one, for
it is an abomination….And concerning what he said (Lev. 25:14), [“When you sell
anything to or buy anything from] your neighbor, you shall not defraud one another,” this is the expli[cation…
…] everything that he knows that is found…
…and he knows that he is wronging him, whether it concerns man or beast. And if
[a man gives his daughter to another ma]n, let him disclose all her blemishes to him, lest he bring upon himself the judgement
[of the curse which is said (Deut. 27:18)] (of the one) that “makes the blind to wander out of the way.” Moreover, he should not give her to one unfit for her, for
[that is Kila’yim, (plowing with) o]x and ass and wearing wool and linen together. Let no man bring
[a woman into the holy] who has had sexual experience, whether she had such experience
[in the home] of her father or as a widow who had intercourse after she was widowed. And any woman
[upon whom] there is a bad name in her maidenhood in her father’s home, let no man take her, except
[upon examination] by reliable [women] who have clear knowledge, by command of the Supervisor over
[the Many. After]ward he may take her, and when he takes her he shall act in accordance with the law …and he shall not tell…
[ ] L [ ]
Transcription and translation by J. Baumgarten

This work was translated by William Whiston and edited by the folks at Sage Software, who offer these works, as well as hundreds of ancient and modern authors, on CD from www.sagelibrary.com. (I am not associated with Sage Software, but left the plug for their CD in place because it is from their production of the text that my work here is based.) HTML conversion was performed from RTF and Microsoft Word sources locally.

Preface
Book I
From The Taking Of Jerusalem By Antiochus Epiphanes, To The Death Of Herod The Great. (167 years.)
Chapter 1
How The City Jerusalem Was Taken, And The Temple Pillaged [By Antiochus Epiphanes]. As Also Concerning The Actions Of The Maccabees, Matthias And Judas; And Concerning The Death Of Judas
Chapter 2
Concerning The Successors Of Judas, Who Were Jonathan And Simon, And John Hyrcanus
Chapter 3
How Aristobulus Was The First That Put A Diadem About His Head; And After He Had Put His Mother And Brother To Death, Died Himself, When He Had Reigned No More Than A Year
Chapter 4
What Actions Were Done By Alexander Janneus, Who Reigned Twenty-Seven Years
Chapter 5
Alexandra Reigns Nine Years, During Which Time The Pharisees Were The Real Rulers Of The Nation
Chapter 6
When Hyrcanus Who Was Alexander’s Heir, Receded From His Claim To The Crown Aristobulus Is Made King; And Afterward The Same Hyrcanus By The Means Of Antipater, Is Brought Back By Abetas. At Last Pompey Is Made The Arbitrator Of The Dispute Between The Brothers
Chapter 7
How Pompey Had The City Of Jerusalem Delivered Up To Him But Took The Temple By Force. How He Went Into The Holy Of Holies; As Also What Were His Other Exploits In Judea
Chapter 8
Alexander, The Son Of Aristobulus, Who Ran Away From Pompey, Makes An Expedition Against Hyrcanus; But Being Overcome By Gabinius He Delivers Up The Fortresses To Him. After This Aristobulus Escapes From Rome And Gathers An Army Together; But Being Beaten By The Romans, He Is Brought Back To Rome; With Other Things Relating To Gabinius, Crassus And Cassius
Chapter 9
Aristobulus Is Taken Off By Pompey’s Friends, As Is His Son Alexander By Scipio. Antipater Cultivates A Friendship With Caesar, After Pompey’s Death; He Also Performs Great Actions In That War, Wherein He Assisted Mithridates
Chapter 10
Caesar Makes Antipater Procurator Of Judea; As Does Antipater Appoint Phasaelus To Be Governor Of Jerusalem, And Herod Governor Of Galilee; Who, In Some Time, Was Called To Answer For Himself [Before The Sanhedrim], Where He Is Acquitted. Sextus Caesar Is Treacherously Killed By Bassus And Is Succeeded By Marcus
Chapter 11
Herod Is Made Procurator Of All Syria; Malichus Is Afraid Of Him, And Takes Antipater Off By Poison; Whereupon The Tribunes Of The Soldiers Are Prevailed With To Kill Him
Chapter 12
Phasaelus Is Too Hard For Felix; Herod Also Overcomes Antigonus In Rattle; And The Jews Accuse Both Herod And Phasaelus But Antonius Acquits Them, And Makes Them Tetrarchs
Chapter 13
The Parthians Bring Antigonus Back Into Judea, And Cast Hyrcanus And Phasaelus Into Prison. The Flight Of Herod, And The Taking Of Jerusalem And What Hyrcanus And Phasaelus Suffered
Chapter 14
When Herod Is Rejected In Arabia, He Makes Haste To Rome Where Antony And Caesar Join Their Interest To Make Him King
Chapter 15
Antigonus Besieges Those That Were In Masada, Whom Herod Frees From Confinement When He Came Back From Rome, And Presently Marches To Jerusalem Where He Finds Silo Corrupted By Bribes
Chapter 16
Herod Takes Sepphoris And Subdues The Robbers That Were In The Caves; He After That Avenges Himself Upon Macheras, As Upon An Enemy Of His And Goes To Antony As He Was Besieging Samosata
Chapter 17
The Death Of Joseph [Herods Brother] Which Had Been Signified To Herod In Dreams. How Herod Was Preserved Twice After A Wonderful Manner. He Cuts Off The Head Of Pappus, Who Was The Murderer Of His Brother And Sends That Head To [His Other Brother] Pheroras, And In No Long Time He Besieges Jerusalem And Marries Mariamne
Chapter 18
How Herod And Sosius Took Jerusalem By Force; And What Death Antigonus Came To. Also Concerning Cleopatra’s Avaricious Temper
Chapter 19
How Antony At The Persuasion Of Cleopatra Sent Herod To Fight Against The Arabians; And Now After Several Battles, He At Length Got The Victory. As Also Concerning A Great Earthquake
Chapter 20
Herod Is Confirmed In His Kingdom By Caesar, And Cultivates A Friendship With The Emperor By Magnificent Presents; While Caesar Returns His Kindness By Bestowing On Him That Part Of His Kingdom Which Had Been Taken Away From It By Cleopatra With The Addition Of Zenodoruss Country Also
Chapter 21
Of The [Temple And] Cities That Were Built By Herod And Erected From The Very Foundations; As Also Of Those Other Edifices That Were Erected By Him; And What Magnificence He Showed To Foreigners; And How Fortune Was In All Things Favorable To Him
Chapter 22
The Murder Of Aristobulus And Hyrcanus, The High Priests, As Also Of Mariamne The Queen
Chapter 23
Calumnies Against The Sons Of Mariamne. Antipateris Preferred Before Them. They Are Accused Before Caesar, And Herod Is Reconciled To Them
Chapter 24
The Malice Of Antipater And Doris. Alexander Is Very Uneasy On Glaphyras Account. Herod Pardons Pheroras, Whom He Suspected, And Salome Whom He Knew To Make Mischief Among Them. Herod’s Eunuchs Are Tortured And Alexander Is Bound
Chapter 25
Archelaus Procures A Reconciliation Between Alexander Pheroras, And Herod
Chapter 26
How Eurycles (40) Calumniated The Sons Of Mariamne; And How Euaratus Of Costs Apology For Them Had No Effect
Chapter 27
Herod By Caesars Direction Accuses His Sons At Eurytus. They Are Not Produced Before The Courts But Yet Are Condemned; And In A Little Time They Are Sent To Sebaste, And Strangled There
Chapter 28
How Antipater Is Hated Of All Men; And How The King Espouses The Sons Of Those That Had Been Slain To His Kindred;But That Antipater Made Him Change Them For Other Women. Of Herod’s Marriages, And Children
Chapter 29
Antipater Becomes Intolerable. He Is Sent To Rome, And Carries Herod’s Testament With Him; Pheroras Leaves His Brother, That He May Keep His Wife. He Dies At Home
Chapter 30
When Herod Made Inquiry About Pherorass Death A Discovery Was Made That Antipater Had Prepared A Poisonous Draught For Him. Herod Casts Doris And Her Accomplices, As Also Mariamne, Out Of The Palace And Blots Her Son Herod Out Of His Testament
Chapter 31
Antipater Is Convicted By Bathyllus ; But He Still Returns From Rome Without Knowing It. Herod Brings Him To His Trial
Chapter 32
Antipater Is Accused Before Varus, And Is Convicted Of Laying A Plot [Against His Father] By The Strongest Evidence. Herod Puts Off His Punishment Till He Should Be Recovered, And In The Mean Time Alters His Testament
Chapter 33
The Golden Eagle Is Cut To Pieces. Herod’s Barbarity When He Was Ready To Die. He Attempts To Kill Himself. He Commands Antipater To Be Slain. He Survives Him Five Days And Then Dies
Book II
From The Death Of Herod Till Vespasian Was Sent To Subdue The Jews By Nero. (69 years.)
Chapter 1
Archelaus Makes A Funeral Feast For The People, On The Account Of Herod. After Which A Great Tumult Is Raised By The Multitude And He Sends The Soldiers Out Upon Them, Who Destroy About Three Thousand Of Them
Chapter 2
Archelaus Goes To Rome With A Great Number Of His Kindred. He Is There Accused Before Caesar By Antipater; But Is Superior To His Accusers In Judgment By The Means Of That Defense Which Nicolaus Made For Him
Chapter 3
The Jews Fight A Great Battle With Sabinus’s Soldiers, And A GreatDestruction Is Made At Jerusalem
Chapter 4
Herods Veteran Soldiers Become Tumultuous. The Robberies Of Judas. Simon And Athronoeus Take The Name Of King Upon Them
Chapter 5
Varus Composes The Tumults In Judea And Crucifies About Two Thousand Of The Seditious
Chapter 6
The Jews Greatly Complain Of Archelaus And Desire That They May Be Made Subject To Roman Governors. But When Caesar Had Heard What They Had To Say, He Distributed Herod’s Dominions Among His Sons According To His Own Pleasure
Chapter 7
The History Of The Spurious Alexander. Archelaus Is Banished And Glaphyra Dies, After What Was To Happen To Both Of Them Had Been Showed Them In Dreams
Chapter 8
Archelauss Ethnarchy Is Reduced Into A [Roman] Province. The Sedition Of Judas Of Galilee. The Three Sects
Chapter 9
The Death Of Salome. The Cities Which Herod And Philip Built. Pilate Occasions Disturbances. Tiberius Puts Agrippa Into Bonds But Caius Frees Him From Them, And Makes Him King. Herod Antipas Is Banished
Chapter 10
Caius Commands That His Statue Should Be Set Up In The Temple Itself; And What Petronius Did Thereupon
Chapter 11
Concerning The Government Of Claudius, And The Reign Of Agrippa. Concerning The Deaths Of Agrippa And Of Herod And What Children They Both Left Behind Them
Chapter 12
Many Tumults Under Cumanus, Which Were Composed By Quadratus. Felix Is Procurator Of Judea. Agrippa Is Advanced From Chalcis To A Greater Kingdom
Chapter 13
Nero Adds Four Cities To Agrippas Kingdom; But The Other Parts Of Judea Were Under Felix. The Disturbances Which Were Raised By The Sicarii The Magicians And An Egyptian False Prophet. The Jews And Syrians Have A Contest At Cesarea
Chapter 14
Festus Succeeds Felix Who Is Succeeded By Albinus As He Is By Florus; Who By The Barbarity Of His Government Forces The Jews Into The War
Chapter 15
Concerning Bernice’s Petition To Florus, To Spare The Jews, But In Vain; As Also How, After The Seditious Flame Was Quenched, It Was Kindled Again By Florus
Chapter 16
Cestius Sends Neopolitanus The Tribune To See In What Condition The Affairs Of The Jews Were. Agrippa Makes A Speech To The People Of The Jews That He May Divert Them From Their Intentions Of Making War With The Romans
Chapter 17
How The War Of The Jews With The Romans Began, And Concerning Manahem
Chapter 18
The Calamities And Slaughters That Came Upon The Jews
Chapter 19
What Cestius Did Against The Jews; And How, Upon His Besieging Jerusalem, He Retreated From The City Without Any Just Occasion In The World. As Also What Severe Calamities He Under Went From The Jews In His Retreat
Chapter 20
Cestius Sends Ambassadors To Nero. The People Of Damascus Slay Those Jews That Lived With Them. The People Of Jerusalem After They Had [Left Off] Pursuing Cestius, Return To The City And Get Things Ready For Its Defense And Make A Great Many Generals For, Their Armies And Particularly Josephus The Writer Of These Books. Some Account Of His Administration.
Chapter 21
Concerning John Of Gichala. Josephus Uses Stratagems Against The Plots John Laid Against Him And Recovers Certain Cities Which Had Revolted From Him
Chapter 22
The Jews Make All Ready For The War; And Simon, The Son Of Gioras, Falls To Plundering
Book III
From Vespasian’s Coming To Subdue The Jews To The Taking Of Gamala. (About one year.)
Chapter 1
Vespasian Is Sent Into Syria By Nero In Order To Make War With The Jews
Chapter 2
A Great Slaughter About Ascalon. Vespasian Comes To Ptolemais
Chapter 3
A Description Op Galilee, Samaria, And Judea
Chapter 4
Josephus Makes An Attempt Upon Sepphoris But Is Repelled. Titus Comes With A Great Army To Ptolemais
Chapter 5
A Description Of The Roman Armies And Roman Camps And Of Other Particulars For Which The Romans Are Commended
Chapter 6
Placidus Attempts To Take Jotapata And Is Beaten Off. Vespasian Marches Into Galilee
Chapter 7
Vespasian, When He Had Taken The City Gadaea Marches To Jotapata. After A Long Siege The City Is Betrayed By A Deserter, And Taken By Vespasian
Chapter 8
How Josephus Was Discovered By A Woman, And Was Willing To Deliver Himself Up To The Romans; And What Discourse He Had With His Own Men, When They Endeavored To Hinder Him; And What He Said To Vespasian, When He Was Brought To Him; And After What Manner Vespasian Used Him Afterward
Chapter 9
How Joppa Was Taken, And Tiberias Delivered Up
Chapter 10
How Taricheae Was Taken. A Description Of The River Jordan, And Of The Country Of Gennesareth
Book IV
From The Siege Of Gamala To The Coming Of Titus To Besiege Jerusalem. (About one year.)
Chapter 1
The Siege And Taking Of Gamala
Chapter 2
The Surrender Of Gischala; While John Flies Away From It To Jerusalem
Chapter 3
Concerning John Of Gischala. Concerning The Zealots And The High Priest Ananus; As Also How The Jews Raise Seditions One Against Another [In Jerusalem]
Chapter 4
The Idumeans Being Sent For By The Zealots, Came Immediately To Jerusalem; And When They Were Excluded Out Of The City, They Lay All Night There. Jesus One Of The High Priests Makes A Speech To Them; And Simon The Idumean Makes A Reply To It
Chapter 5
The Cruelty Of The Idumeans When They Were Gotten Into The Temple During The Storm; And Of The Zealots. Concerning The Slaughter Of Ananus, And Jesus, And Zacharias; And How The Idumeans Retired Home
Chapter 6
How The Zealots When They Were Freed From The Idumeans, Slew A Great Many More Of The Citizens; And How Vespasian Dissuaded The Romans When They Were Very Earnest To March Against The Jews From Proceeding In The War At That Time
Chapter 7
How John Tyrannized Over The Rest; And What Mischiefs The Zealots Did At Masada. How Also Vespasian Took Gadara; And What Actions Were Performed By Placidus
Chapter 8
How Vespasian .Upon Hearing Of Some Commotions In Gall, (12) Made Haste To Finish The Jewish War. A Description Of. Jericho, And Of The Great Plain; With An Account Besides Of The Lake Asphaltitis
Chapter 9
That Vespasian, After He Had Taken Gadara Made Preparation For The Siege Of Jerusalem; But That, Upon His Hearing Of The Death Of Nero, He Changed His Intentions. As Also Concerning Simon Of Geras
Chapter 10
How The Soldiers, Both In Judea And Egypt, Proclaimed Vespasian Emperor;And How Vespasian Released Josephus From His Bonds
Chapter 11
That Upon The Conquest And Slaughter Of Vitellius Vespasian Hastened His Journey To Rome; But Titus His Son Returned To Jerusalem
Book V
From The Coming Of Titus To Besiege Jerusalem, To The Great Extremity To Which The Jews Were Reduced. (Almost 6 months.)
Chapter 1
Concerning The Seditions At Jerusalem And What Terrible Miseries Afflicted The City By Their Means
Chapter 2
How Titus Marched To Jerusalem, And How He Was In Danger As He Was Taking A View O The City Of The Place Also Where He Pitched His Camp
Chapter 3
How The Sedition Was Again Revived Within Jerusalem And Yet The Jews Contrived Snares For The Romans. How Titus Also Threatened His Soldiers For Their Ungovernable Rashness
Chapter 4
The Description Of Jerusalem
Chapter 5
A Description Of The Temple
Chapter 6
Concerning The Tyrants Simon And John. How Also As Titus Was Going Round The Wall Of This City Nicanor Was Wounded By A Dart; Which Accident Provoked Titus To Press On The Siege
Chapter 7
How One Of The Towers Erected By The Romans Fell Down Of Its Own Accord; And How The Romans After Great Slaughter Had Been Made Got Possession Of The First Wall. How Also Titus Made His Assaults Upon The Second Wall; As Also Concerning Longinus The Roman, And Castor The Jew
Chapter 8
How The Romans Took The Second Wall Twice,
And Got All Ready For Taking The Third Wall

Chapter 9
Titus When The Jews Were Not At All Mollified By His Leaving Off The Siege For A While, Set Himself Again To Prosecute The Same; But Soon Sent Josephus To Discourse With His Own Countrymen About Peace
Chapter 10
How A Great Many Of The People Earnestly Endeavored To Desert To The Romans; As Also What Intolerable Things Those That Staid Behind Suffered By Famine, And The Sad Consequences Thereof
Chapter 11
How The Jews Were Crucified Before The Walls Of The City Concerning Antiochus Epiphanes; And How The Jews Overthrew The Banks That Had Been Raised By The Romans
Chapter 12
Titus Thought Fit To Encompass The City Round With A Wall; After Which The Famine Consumed The People By Whole Houses And Families Together
Chapter 13
The Great Slaughters And Sacrilege That Were In Jerusalem
Book VI
From The Great Extremity To Which The Jews Were Reduced To The Taking Of Jerusalem By Titus. (About one month.)
Chapter 1
That The Miseries Still Grew Worse; And How The Romans Made An Assault Upon The Tower Of Antonia
Chapter 2
How Titus Gave Orders To Demolish The Tower Of Antonia And Then Persuaded Josephus To Exhort The Jews Again [To A Surrender]
Chapter 3
Concerning A Stratagem That Was Devised By The Jews, By Which They Burnt Many Of The Romans; With Another Description Of The Terrible Famine That Was In The City
Chapter 4
When The Banks Were Completed And The Battering Rams Brought, And Could Do Nothing, Titus Gave Orders To Set Fire To The Gates Of The Temple; In No Long Time After Which The Holy House Itself Was Burnt Down, Even Against His Consent
Chapter 5
The Great Distress The Jews Were In Upon The Conflagration Of The Holy House. Concerning A False Prophet, And The Signs That Preceded This Destruction
Chapter 6
How The Romans Carried Their Ensigns To The Temple, And Made Joyful Acclamations To Titus. The Speech That Titus Made To The Jews When They Made Supplication For Mercy. What Reply They Made Thereto; And How That Reply Moved Titus’s Indignation Against Them
Chapter 7
What Afterward Befell The Seditious When They Had Done A Great Deal Of Mischief, And Suffered Many Misfortunes; As Also How Caesar Became Master Of The Upper City
Chapter 8
How Caesar Raised Banks Round About The Upper City [Mount Zion] And When They Were Completed, Gave Orders That The Machines Should Be Brought. He Then Possessed Himself Of The Whole City
Chapter 9
What Injunctions Caesar Gave When He Was Come Within The City. The Number Of The Captives And Of Those That Perished In The Siege; As Also Concerning Those That Had Escaped Into The Subterranean Caverns, Among Whom Were The Tyrants Simon And John Themselves
Chapter 10
That Whereas The City Of Jerusalem Had Been Five Times Taken Formerly, This Was The Second Time Of Its Desolation. A Brief Account Of Its History
Book VII
From The Taking Of Jerusalem By Titus To The Sedition At Cyrene. (About 3 years.)
Chapter 1
How The Entire City Of Jerusalem Was Demolished, Excepting Three Towers; And How Titus Commended His Soldiers In A Speech Made To Them, And Distributed Rewards To Them And Then Dismissed Many Of Them
Chapter 2
How Titus Exhibited All Sorts Of Shows At Cesarea Philippi. Concerning Simon The Tyrant How He Was Taken, And Reserved For The Triumph
Chapter 3
How Titus Upon The Celebration Of His Brothers And Fathers Birthdays Had Many Of The Jews Slain. Concerning The Danger The Jews Were In At Antioch, By Means Of The Transgression And Impiety Of One Antiochus, A Jew
Chapter 4
How Vespasian Was Received At Rome; As Also How The Germans Revolted From The Romans, But Were Subdued. That The Sarmatians Overran Mysia, But Were Compelled To Retire To Their Own Country Again
Chapter 5
Concerning The Sabbatic River Which Titus Saw As He Was Journeying Through Syria; And How The People Of Antioch Came With A Petition To Titus Against The Jews But Were Rejected By Him; As Also Concerning Titus’s And Vespasian’s Triumph
Chapter 6
Concerning Macherus, And How Lucilius Bassus Took That Citadel, And Other Places
Chapter 7
Concerning The Calamity That Befell Antiochus, King Of Commagene. As Also Concerning The Alans And What Great Mischiefs They Did To The Medes And Armenians
Chapter 8
Concerning Masada And Those Sicarii Who Kept It; And How Silva Betook Himself To Form The Siege Of That Citadel. Eleazar’s Speeches To The Besieged
Chapter 9
How The People That Were In The Fortress Were Prevailed On By The Words Of Eleazar, Two Women And Five Children Only Excepted And All Submitted To Be Killed By One Another
Chapter 10
That Many Of The Sicarii Fled To Alexandria Also And What Dangers They Were In There; On Which Account That Temple Which Had Formerly Been Built By Onias The High Priest Was Destroyed.
Chapter 11
Concerning Jonathan, One Of The Sicarii, That Stirred Up A Sedition In Cyrene, And Was A False Accuser [Of The Innocent]

Armageddon: the war to end all wars. These words stir up images of inevitable conflict, the final focus on the dark side of human nature, the ultimate catharsis that ushers in an age of peace. Al1 of these issues come to a head in th War Scroll, a text that describes the eschatological last battle in gory detail a righteousness is fully victorious and evil is forever destroyed. This vivid account gives us insight into how, at about the time of Jesus. some Jews conceived of Armageddon.

The first lines of the scroll (1QM 1:1-7) lay the framework for a three-stage conflict between the Sons of Light, that is, members of the Yahad (see 1Q’ 3:13) and the Sons of Darkness. The first battle finds the adversaries led by the Kittim of Assyria. (Although the name Kittim is often used in the scrolls as reference to the Romans, its basic sense seems to have been Òarchetypical bac guys.”) The Kittim of Asshur come in alliance with the biblical enemies Edom, Moab, Ammon, and Philistia. Cooperating with this unholy alliance are the “violators of the covenant”: Jews who had spurned the message of the Yahad and in so doing aligned themselves with the Sons of Darkness. The second stage expand~ the war’s influence to the Kittim who dwelt in Egypt, and then finally to the Kings of the North.

Although this war is said to extend over forty years, the writer of the scrol1 was particularly concerned with the details of the very final day of battle. After six bloody engagements during this last battle, the Sons of Light and Sons of Darkness are deadlocked in a 3-3 tie. In the seventh and final confrontation “the great hand of God shall overcome [Belial and al]l the angels of his dominion, and all men of [his forces shall be destroyed forever]” (1QM 1:14-15).

Along the way, in true apocalyptic fashion, the scroll goes into elaborate detail concerning the battle trumpets (2:15-3:11), banners (3:12-5:2), and operational matters (5:3-9:16). Priestly prayers for the various phases of the conflict are corded next (9:17-15:3). Finally, the seven savage engagements of the final day battle are detailed (15:4-18:8), culminating in a ceremony of thanksgiving on the day following the victory (18:1~19:14).

As with biblical representatives of apocalyptic literature, Ezekiel 38-39 and the revelation of John as pertinent examples, one can easily lose sight of the primary purpose of the work. It is not to be found in the intricate and often mysterious tails of the text. Rather, the author was concerned with the tribulation and hopelessness that his readers were currently experiencing. He built his enouragement on a biblical theology of rescue: the defeat of Goliath at the hand of David (1QM 11:1-2), and Pharaoh and the officers of his chariots at the Red Sea 1:9-10). Coupled with this aspect was his understanding that great suffering was part of God’s will for the redeemed. Indeed, God’s crucible (17:9) was seen as a necessary component of man’s existence so long as evil continued to exist in the World. Ultimately, God’s purpose was to exalt the Sons of Light and to judge the Children of Darkness. The message is one of hope. In the face of such perverse evil, the Sons of Light are encouraged to persevere to the end. God was preparing to intervene and bring a permanent solution for the problem of evil.

The scroll itself is one of the first seven texts found by the Bedouin in 1947. Nineteen columns of text are preserved, lacking only a few lines at the bottom edge and the final page or pages of the composition (see text 54). Although six dditional manuscripts were found seven years later in Cave 4 (4Q491-496), they are only moderately helpful in reconstructing the missing portions of 1QM.

The description of the eschatological war.

Col. 1 For the In[structor, the Rule of] the War. The first attack of the Sons of Light shall be undertaken against the forces of the Sons of Darkness, the army of Belial: the troops of Edom, Moab, the sons of Ammon, the [Amalekites], Philistia, and the troops of the Kittim of Asshur. Supporting them are those who have violated the covenant. The sons of Levi, the sons of Judah, and the sons of Benjamin, those exiled to the wilderness, shall fight against them 3with [ . . . ] against all their troops, when the exiles of the Sons of Light return from theWilderness of the Peoples to camp in the WilderneSs of Jerusalem. Then after the battle they shall go up from that place 4a[nd tile king of; the Kittim [shall enter] into Egypt. In his time he shall go forth Vvith great wrath to do battle against the kings of the north, and in his anger he shall set out to destroy and eliminate the strength of I[srael. Then the]re shall be a time of salvation for the People of God, and a time of dominion for all the men of His forces, and eternal annihilation for all the forces of Belial. There shall be g[reat] panic [among] the sons of Japheth, Assyria shall fall with no one to come to his aid, and the supremacy of the Kittim shall cease that wickedness be overcome without a remnant. There shal1 be no survivors of [all the Sons of] Darkness.

Then [the Sons of Rig]hteousness shall shine to all ends ofthe world continuing to shine forth until end of the appointed seasons of darkness. Then at the time appointed by God, His great excellence shall shine for all the times of e[ternity;] for peace and blessing, glory and joy, and long life for all Sons of Light. On the day when the Kittim fall there shall be a battle and horrible carnage before the God of i¡Israel, for it is a day appointed by Him from ancient times as a battle of annihilation for the Sons of Darkness. On that day the congregation of the gods and the congregation of men shall engage one another, resulting in great carnage. The Sons of Light and the forces of Darkness shall fight together to show the strength of God with the roar of a great multitude and the shout of gods and men; a day of disaster. It is a time of distress fo[r al]1 the people who are redeemed by God. In all their afflictions none exists that is like it, hastening to its completion as an eternal redemption. On the day of their battle against the Kittim, they shall g[o forth for] carnage in battle. In three lots the Sons of Light shall stand firm so as to strike a blow at wickedness, and in three the army of Belial shall strengthen themselves so as to force the retreat of the forces i4[of Light. And when the] banners of the infantry cause their hearts to melt, then the strength of God will strengthen the he[arts of the Sons of Light.] In the seventh lot : the great hand of God shall overcome [Belial and al]l the angels of his dominion, and all the men of [his forces shall be destroyed forever].

The annihilation of the Sons of Darkr~ess and service to God during the war years.

|6[, . . ] the holy ones shall shine forth in support of [ . . . ] the truth for the annihilation of the Sons of Darkness. Then [ . . . ] 17[ . . . ] a great [r]oar [ . . . ] they took hold of the implement[s of war . ] 18[,, . ] 19[ . . . chiefs of the tribes . . . and the priests, 1 20[the Levites, the chiefs of the tribes, the fathers of the congregation . . . the priests and thus for the Levites and the courses of the heads of] Col. 2 the congregation’s clans, fifty-two. They shal1 rank the chiefs of the priests after the Chief Priest and his deputy; twelve chief priests to serve in the regular offering before God. The chiefs of the courses, twenty-six, shall serve in their courses. After them the chiefs of the Levites serve continually, twelve in all, one to a tribe. The chiefs of their courses shall serve each man in his office.

The chiefs of the tribes and fathers of the congregation shall support them, taking their stand continually at the gates of the sanctuary. The chiefs of their courses, from the age of fifty upwards, shall take their stand with their commissioners on their festivals, new moons and Sabbaths, and on every day of the year. These shall take their stand at the burnt offerings and sacrifices, to arrange the sweet smelling incense according to the will of God, to atone for all His congregation, and to satisfY themselves before Him continually 6at the table of glory. All of these they shall arrange at the time of the year of remission. During the remaining thirty-three years of the war the men of renown, those called of the Congregation, and all the heads of the congregation’s clans shall choose for themselves men of war for all the lands of the nations. From ail tribes of IsraeI’they shall prepare capable men for themselves to go out for battle according to the summons of the war, year by year. But during the years of remission they shall not ready men to go out for battle, for it is a Sabbath 90f rest for Israel.

During the thirty-five years of service the war shal1 be waged. For six years the whole congregation shall wage it together, :¡and a war of divisions shall be waged during the twenty-nine remaining years. In the first year they shal1 fight against Mesopotamia, in the second against the sons of Lud, in the third they shall fight against the rest of the sons of Aram: Uz, Hul, Togar, and Mesha, who are beyond the Euphrates. In the fourth and fifth they shall fight against the sons of Arpachshad, in the sixth and seventh they shal1 fight against all the sons of Assyria and Persia and the easterners up to the Great Desert. In the eighth year they shall fight against the sons of Elam, in the ninth year they shall fight against the sons of Ishmael and Keturah, and during the following ten years the war shall be divided against all the sons of Ham i4according to [their] c[lans and] their lterri]tories. During the remaining ten years the war shall be divided against all [sons of Japhe]th according to their territories.

The description of the trumpets.

~6[The Rule of the Trumpets: the trumpets] of alarm for all their service for the [ . . . ] for their commissioned men, i7[by tens of thousands and thousands and hundreds and fifties] and tens. Upon the t[rumpets . . . ]
[ . . . ] )8[ . . . ] 19[ . . . which ] 20[,, . they shall write . . . the trumpets of Col. 3 the battle formations, and the trumpets for assembling them when the gates of the war are opened so that the infantry might advance, the trumpets for the signal of the slain, the trumpets of 2the ambush, the trumpets of pursuit when the enemy is defeated, and the trumpets of reassembly wben the battle returns. On the trumpets for the assembly of the congregation they shall write, “The called of God.”

30n the trumpets for the assembly of the chiefs they shall write, “The princes of God.” On the trumpets of the formaons they shall write, “The rule of God.” On the trumpets of the men of renown [they shall write],”The heads of the congregation’s clans.” Then when they are assembled at the house of meeting, they shal1 write, “The testimonies of God for a holy congregation.” On the trumpets of the camps Sthey shall write, “The peace of God in the camps of His saints.” On the trumpets for their campaigns they shall write,”The mighty deeds of God to scatter the enemy and to put all those who hate 6justice to flight and a withdrawal of mercy from all who hate God.” On the trumpets of the battle formations they shall write, “Formations of the- divisions of God to avenge His anger on all Sons of Darkness.” 70n the trumpets for assembling the infantry when the gates of war open that they might go out against the battle line of the enemy, they shall write, “A remembrance of requital at the appointed time 80f God.”

On the trumpets of the slain they shall write, “The hand of the might of God in battle so as to bring down all the slain because of unfaithfulness.” On the trumpets of ambush they shall write, 9″Mysteries of God to wipe out wickedness.” On the trumpets of pursuit they shall write,”God has struck all Sons of Dark~ness, He shal1 not abate His anger until they are annihilated.” i¡When they return from battle to enter the formation, they shall write on the trumpets of retreat, “God has gathered.” On the trumpets for the way of return from battle with the enemy to enter the congregation in Jerusalem, they shall write,”Rejoicings of God in a peaceful return.”

The description of the banners.

13Rule of the banners of the whole congregation according to their formations. On the grand banner which is at the head of all the people they shall write,”People of God,” the names “Israel” and ~4″Aaron,” and the names of the twelve tribes of Israel according to their order of birth. On the banners of the heads of the “camps” of three tribes i5they shall write, “the Spirit [of God,” and the names of three tribes. O]n the banner of each tribe they shall write, “Standard of God,” and the name of the leader of the t[ribe ] ~60f its clans. [ . . . and] the name of the leader of the ten thousand and the names of the chief[s of . . . ] i7[ . . . ] his hundreds. On the banner [ ] 18 20[,, . ] Col. 4 ~On the banner of Merari they shall write, “The Offering of God,” and the name of the leader of Merari and the names of the chiefs of his thousands. On the banner of the tho[us]and they shall write, “The Anger of God is loosed against 2Belial and all the men of his forces without remnant,” and the name of the chief of the thousand and the names of the chiefs of his hundreds. And on the banner of the hundred they shall write, “Hundred 30f God, the power of war against a~~ sinf- ~ fiesh,” arid the name of the chief of the hundred and the names of the chiefs of his tens. And on the banner of the fifty they shall write, “Ended 4iS the stand of the wicked [by] the might of God,” and the name of the chief of the fifty and the names of the chiefs of his tens. And on the banner of the ten they shall write, “Songs of joy for God on the ten-stringed harp,” and the name of the chief of the ten and the names of the nine men in his command.

6When they go to battle they shall write on their banners,”The truth of God,””The righteousness of God,””The glory of God,””The justice of God,” and after these the list of their names in full. 7When they draw near for battle they shall write on their banners,”The right hand of God,””The appointed time of God,””The tumult of God,””The slain of God”; after these their names in full. 3When they return from battle they shall write on their banners,”The exaltation of God,””The greatness of God,””The praise of God,” “The glory of God,” with their names in full.

9The Rule of the banners of the congregation:When they set out to battle they shall write on the first banner,”The congregation of God,” on the second banner,”The camps of God,” on the third, i¡”The tribes of God,” on the fourth, “The clans of God,” on the fifth,”The divisions of God,” on the sixth, “The congregation of God,” on the seventh,”Those called by God,” and on the eighth, “The army of God.” They shall write their names in full with all their order.When they draw near for battle they shall write on their banners, ~2″The battle of God,””The recompense of God,””The cause of God,” “The reprisal of God,””The pov`.Ter of God,””The retribution of ~od,””The …ight of God,” “The annihilation by God of all the vainglorious nations.” And ‘3their names in full they shall write upon them.When they return from battle they shall write on their banners,”The deliverance of God,””The victory of God,” “The help of God,” “The support of God,” ~4″The joy of God,” “The thanksgivings of God,””The praise of God,” and “The peace of God.”

15[The Length of the Bannjers. The banner of the whole congregation shall be fourteen cubits long; the banner of th[ree tribes’ thir]teen cubits [long;] 16[the banner of a tribe,] twelve cubits; the banner of ten thousand, eleve[n cubits; the banner of a thousand, ten cubits; the banner of a hu]ndred, [n]ine cubits; i7[the banner of a fifty, ei]ght cubits; the banner of a ten, sev[en cubits . . . ].

The description of the shields.

18-20[ . . . ] Col. 5 and on the sh[ie]ld of the Leader of the whole nation they shall write his name, the names “Israel,””Levi,” and “Aaron,” and the names of the twelve tribes of Israel according to their order of birth, 2and the names of the twelve chiefs of their tribes.

The description of the arming and deployment of the divisions.

3The rule for arranging the clivisions for war when their army is complete to make a forward battle line: the battle line shall be formed of one thousand men. There shall be seven forward rows 4to each battle line, arranged in order; the stahon of each man behind his fellow. All of them shall bear shields of bronze, polished like 5a face mirror. The shield shall be bound with a border of plaited work and a design of loops, the work of a skillful workman; gold, silver, and bronze bound together 6and jewels; a multicolored brocade. It is the work of a skillful workman, artistically done. The length of the shield shall be two and a half cubits, and its breadth a cubit and a half. In their hands they ch~n hold a lance 7and a sword. The length of the lance shall be seven cubits, of which the socket and the blade constitute half a cubit. On the socket there she be three bands engraved as a border of plaited 8work; of gold, silver, and COppe~ bound together like an artistically designed work. And in the loops of the de sign, on both sides of the band 9all around, shall be precious stones, a multicolored brocade, the work of a skillful workman, artistically done, and an ear of grain. The socket shall be grooved between the bands like 10a column, artist) cally done. The blade shall be of shining white iron, the work of a skillful workman, artistically done, and an ear of grain of pure gold inlaid in the blade; tapered towards ~~the point. The swords shall be of refined iron, purlfied in the furnace and polished like a face mirror, the work of a skillful workman, artistically done, with figures of ears of grain i7Of pure gold embossed on both sides. The borders shall go straight to the point, two on each side. The length ofthe sword shall be a cubit i3and a half and its width four fingers. The scabbard shall be four thumbs wide’ end four handbreadths up to the scabbard. The scabba~d shall be tied on either ~4side with thongs of five handbreadths. The handle of the sword shall be of choice horn, the work of a skillful workman, a varicolored design with gold and silver and precious stones.
16And when the [ . . . take their] stand, they shall arrange seven battle lines, one behind the otherj ~7and there shall be a space [between . . . t]hirty cubits, where the infan[try] shall stand i8[,, . ] forward [ . . . ] i9-20[ . . . they shall sling]

Col. 6 iseven times, and return to their position. After them, three divisions of infantry shall advance and stand between the battle lines. The first division shall heave into 2the enemy battle line seven battle darts. On the blade of the first dart they shal1 write, “Flash of a spear for the strength of God.” On the second weapon they shall write, 3″Missiles of blood to fell the slain by the wrath of God.” On the third dart they shall write,”The blade of a sword devours the slain of wickedness by the judgment of God.” 4Each of these they shall throw seven times and then return to their position. After these, two divisions of infantry shall march forth and stand between the two battle lines, 5the first division equipped with a spear and a shield and the second division with a shield and a sword; to bring down the slain by the judgment of God, to subdue the battle line 6Of the enemy by the power of God, and to render recompense for their evil for all the vainglorious nations. So the Kingship shall belong to the God of Israel, and by the holy ones of His people He shall act powerfully.

The description of the deployment of the cavalry.

8Seven rows of horsemen shall also take position at the right and at the 1eft of the battle line. Their ranks shall be positioned on both sides, seven hundred horsemen on one side and seven hundred on the other. Two hundred horsemen shall go out with one thousand men of the battle line of the infantry, and thus i¡they shall take position on all sides of the camp. The total being four thousand six hundred men, and one thousand four hundred cavalry for the entire army arranged for the battle line; iififty for each battle line. The horsemen’ with the cavalry of the men of the entire army, will be six thousand; five hundred to a tribe. All the cavalry that go out i2to battle with the infantry shall ride stallions; swift, responsive, unrelenting, mature, trained for battle, i3and accustomed to hearing noises and seeing all kinds of scenes. Those who ride them shall be men capable in battle, trained in horsemanship, the range ~4Of their age from thirty to forty-five years. The horsemen of the army shall be from forty to fifty years old, and they i5[ . . . ], helmets and greaves, carrying in their hands round shields and a lance eig[ht cubits long, . . . ] 16[ .,, ] and a bow and arrows and battle darts, all of them prepared in [ . . . ] i7[ . . . ] and to shed the blood of their guilty slain. These are the [ . . . ]

The recruitment and age of the soldiers.

18-20[ . . . ] Col. 7 and the men of the army shall be from forty to fifty years old. The commissioners of the camps shall be from fifty to sixty years old. The officers 2shall-also be from forty to fifty years old. All those who strip the slain, plunder the spoil, cleanse the land, guard the arms, 3and he who prepares the provisions, all these shall be from twenty-five to thirty years old. No youth nor woman shall enter their encampments from the time they leave 4Jerusalem to go to battle until their return. No one crippled, blind, or lame, nor a man who has a permanent blemish on his skin, or a man affected with ritual uncleanness of shis flesh; none of these shall go vvith them to battle. All of them shall be volunteers for battle, pure of spirit and flesh, and prepared for the day of vengeance. Any 6man who is not ritually clean in respect to his genitals on the day of battle shal1 not go down with them into battle, for holy angels are present with their army. There shall be a distance 7between all their camps and the latrine of about two thousand cubits, and no shameful nakedness shall be seen in the environs of all their camps.

The ministry of the priests and Levites.

9When the battle iines are arrayed against the enemyÑbattle line against battle lineÑthere shall go forth from the middle opening into the gap bet\veen the battle lines seven ~¡priests of the sons of Aaron, dressed in fine wlute linen garments: a linen tunic and linen breeches, and girded with a 1inen sash of twined~fine linen, violet, ‘”purple, and crimson, and a varicolored deSign, the work of a skillful workman, and decorated caps on their heads; the garments for battle, and they shall not take them into the sanctuary. The one priest shall walk before all the men of the battle line to encourage them for battle. In the hands of the remaining six shall be t3the trumpets of assembly’ the trumpets of memorial, the trumpets of the alarm, the trumpets of pursuit, and the trumpets of reassembly.When the priests go out i4into the gap between the battle lines, seven Levites shall go out with them. In their hands shall be seven trumpets of rams’ horns.

Three officers from among the Levites shall walk before ~5the priests and the Levites. The priests shall blow the two trumpets of assem[bly . . . of ba]ttle upon fifty shields, ~6and fifty infantrymen shall go out from the one gate and [ . . . ] Levites, officers. With 7each battle line they shall go out according to all [this] o[rder…. men of the] infantry from the gates i8[and they shall take positi]on between the two battle lines, and [ . . . ] the bat[tle ] ~9 20[,, . ] Col. 8 the trumpets shall blow continually to direct the slingmen until they have completed hurling seven 2times. Afterwards the priests shall blow on the trumpets of return, and they shall go along the side of the first battle line 3to take their position. The priests shal1 blow on the trumpets of assembly, and 4the three divisions of infantry shall go out from the gates and stand between the battle lines, and beside them the cavalrymen, Sat the right and at the left. The priests shall blow on their trumpets a level note, signals for the order of battle. 6And the columns shall be deployed into their formations, each to his position.

When they have positioned themselves in three formations, 7the priests shall blow for them a second signal, a low legato note, signals for advance, until they draw near to 8the battle line of the enemy and take hold of their weapons. Then the priests shall blow on the six trumpets 90f the slain a sharp staccato note to direct the battle, and the Levites and all the people with rams’ horns shall blow ‘¡a great battle alarm together in order to melt the heart of the enemy.With the sound of the alarm, i~the battle darts shall fly out to bring down the slain. Then the sound of the rams’ horns shall quiet, but on the tru[m]pets i2the priests shall continue to blow a sharp staccato note to direct the signals of battle until they have hurled into the battle line ~30f the enemy seven times. Afterwards, the priests shall blow for them the trumpets of retreat, ~4a low note, level and legato. According to this rule the [pr]iests shall blow for the three divisions.When 5the first division throws, the ~riests and the Levites and all the people with rams’] horns shall blow a great alarm ~6to direct the bat[tle until they have hurled seven times. Afterwards,] the priestS [shall blow] for them ~70n the tn~mpe[ts of retreat . . . and they sha~i take their stan]d in their positions in the battle line, i8[ . ] and shall take up pOSition ‘9[ . . . the sl]ain, 20[and all the people with rams’ horns shall blow a very 1oud battle alarm, and as the sound goes out] Col. 9 itheir hands shall begin to bring down the slain, and all the people shal1 quiet the sound of alarm, but the priests shall continue sounding on the trumpets 20f the slain to direct the fighting, until the enemy is defeated and turns in retreat.

The priests shall blow the alarm to direct the battle, 3and when they have been defeated before them, the priests shall blow the trumpets of assembly, and all the infantry shalI go out to them from the inidst of 4the front battle lines and stand, six diviSionS in addition to the division which is engaged in battle: altogether, seven battle lines, twenty-eight thousand soldiers, and six thousand horsemen. All these shall pursue in order’to destroy the enemy in God’s battle; a total annihilation The priests shall blow for them the trumpets of pursuit, and they shall divide themselves for a pursuit of annihilation against all the enemy. The cavalry shall push the enemy back at the flanks of the battle until they are destroyed.When the slain have fallen, the priests shall continue blowing from afar and shall not enter 8into the midst of the slain so as to be defiled by their unclean blood, for they are holy. They shall not allow the oil of their priestly anointment to be profaned with the blood 90f the vainglorious nations.

The description of the maneuvers of the battle divisions.

Rule for changing the order of the battle divisions, in order to arrange their position against [ . . . ] a pincer movement and towers, lien arc and towers, and as it draws slowly forward, then the columns and the flanks go out from the [t]wo sides of the battle line [that] ‘2the enemy might become discouraged. The shields of the soldiers of the towers shall be three cubits long, and their lances eight cubits l[on]g. The towers ‘3shall go out from the battle line with one hundred shields on a side. F[or] they shall surround the tower on the three frontal sides, i4three hundred shields in all. There shall be three gates to a tower, one on [the right and] one on the left. Upon all the shields of the tower soldiers ‘5they shall write: on the first, “Mi[chae]l,” [on the second,”Gabriel,” on the third,] “Sariel,” and on the fourth “Raphael.” i6″Michael” and”Gabriel” on [the right, and “Raphael” and”Raphael” on the 1eft.

And [ . . . ] for to the four [ . . . They] shall establish an ambush for the [battle line] Of [ . . . ] i8and [ . . . they shall fal]1 on the s[lain . . . ]

The address of the chiefpriest.

19-20[ . , ] Col. 10 of our camps, and to keep ourselves from any shameful nakedness, and he (Moses) told us that You are in our midst, a great and awesome God, plundering all of’our enemies befo[re u]s. He taught us from of old through a,, out generations, saying, whhen you approach the battle, the priest shall stand and speak unto the people, 3saying,’Hear O Israel, you are approaching the battle against your enemies today. Do not be afraid nor fainthearted. 4Do not trem[ble, no]r be terrified because of them, for your God goes with you, to fight for you against your enemies, and to save syou”‘ (:Deut. 20:2-4) Our [oflficers shall speak to all those prepared for battle, those Willing of heart, to strengthen them by the might of God, to turn back all who have who have lost heart, and to strengthen all the valiant warriors together. They shall recount that which You slpoke] by the hand of Moses, say ing:”And when there is a war 7in your land against the adversary who attacks you, then yo[u] shall sound an alarm with the trumpets that you might be remembered before your God 8and be saved from your enemies (Num. 10:9)

The prayer of the chiefpriest.

Who is like You, O God of Israel, in he[av]en and on earth, that he can perform in accordance with Your great works 9and Your great strength.WhO is like Your people Israel, whom You have chosen for Yourself from all the peoples of the lands; Òthe people of the saints of the covenant, learned in the statutes, enlightened in understan[ding . . . ] those who hear the glorious voice and see iithe holy angels, whose ears are open; hearing deep things. [O God, You have created] the expanse of the skies, the host of luminaries, 2the task of spirits and the dominion of holy ones, the treasures of [Your] gl[ory . . . ] clouds. He who created the earth and the limits of her divisions into wilderness and plain, and a~, her o~~spring, `.vith fhe fru[its = . ] 7 the circle of the seas, the sources of the rivets, and the rift of the deeps, ‘4wild beasts and winged creatures, the form of man and the gener[ations of I his [see]d, the confusion of language and the separation of peoples, the abode of clans ‘Sand the inheritance of the lands, [ . . . and] holy festivals, courses of years and times of ~6eternity. [ . . . ] these we know from Your understanding which [ ., . ] 17[ . . . ] Your [ears] to our cry, for [ . . ] 18[ . ] his house [ . . . ] 9 2[ . . . ]

Col. 11 Truly the battle is Yours, and by the strength of Your hand their corpses have been broken to pieces, without anyone to bury them. Indeed, Goliath the Gittitej a mighty man of valor, 2You delivered into the hand of David, Your servant, because he trusted in Your great name and not in sword and spear. For the battle is Yours. 3He subdued the Philistines many times by Your holy name. Also by the hand of our kings You rescued us many times 4because of Your mercy; not according to our works, for we have acted wickedly, nor for the acts of our rebelliousness. The battle is Yours, the strength is from You, sit is not our own. Neither our power nor the strength of our hand have done valiantly, but rather by Your power and the strength of Your great valor.Jus[t ads You told 6us in time past, saying: “There shall come forth a star out of Jacob, a scepter shal1 rite out of Israel, and shall crush the forehead of Moab and tear down a~ sons of Sheth, 7and he shan desceIld ‘o~ Jacob and shall destroy the remnant from the city, and the enemy shall be a possession, and Israel shal1 do valiantly (Num. 24:17-19).

By the hand of Your anointed ones, 8seers of things appointed, You have told us about the ti[mes] of the wars of Your hands in order that You may glorify Yourself {fight} among our enemies, to bring down the hordes of Belial, the seven 9vainglorious nations, at the hand of the oppressed whom You have redeemed [vith powe]r and retribution; a wondrous strength. A heart that melts shall be as a door of hope. You will do to them as You did to Pharaoh ‘¡and the officers of his chariots in the Red Sea. You will ignite the humble of spirit like a fiery torch of fire in a sheaf, consuming the wicked. You shall not turn back until “the annihilation of the guilty. In time past You foretold [the app]ointed time for Your handis powerful work against the Kittim, saying: And Assyria shall fall by a sword not of man, and a sword, ‘2not of men, shall consume him (Isa. 31: 8) .

13For into the hand of the oppressed You will deliver the [ene]mies of all the lands; into the hands of those who are prostrate in the dust, in order to bring down all mighty men of ~h\e peoples, to return the recompense ‘4Of thewicked on the head of [ . . . ], to pronounce the just judgment of Your truth on all sons of man, and to make for Yourself an everlasting name among the people. ‘s[ . . . ] tee wars, and to show Yourself great and holy before the remnant of the nations, so that [they] may know [that] ‘6~ou are God . . . when You] carry out judgments on (fog and on all his company that are as[semb]led [abou]t l,us . . . ] 17[ . . . ], for You will do battle against them from the heave[ns . ] 18[,, . ] upon them for confusion [ ] i9 20[ . ] Col. 12 For You have a multitude of holy ones in the heavens and hosts of angels in Your exalted dwelling to pr[aise] Your [name]. The chosen ones of the holy people 2You have established for Yourself in a [community.

The nu]mber (or The b]ook) of the names of all their host is with You in Your holy dwelling, and the n[umber of the holy one]s is in the abode of Your glory. 3Mercies of blessing [ . . . ] and Your covenant of peace You engraved for them with a stylus of life in order to reign o[ver them]: for all time, 4commissioning the hos[ts of I Your [e]lect by their thousands and tens of thousands together with Your holy ones [and] Your angels, and directing them Sin battle [so as to condemn] the earthly adversaries by trial with Your judgments. With the elect of heaven [they] shall prev[ail].

7And You, O God, are awe[some] in the glory of Your dominion, and the company of Your holy ones is in our midst for etern[al] support.We [shall direc3t our contempt at kings, derision 9and disdain at mighty men. For the Lord is holy, and the King of Glory is with us together with the holy ones. Migh[ty men and] a host of angels are with our commissioned forces. 9The Hero of Wa[r] is with our company, and the host of His spirits is with our steps Our horser^lien are [as] ~he clouds and as the mist covering the earth, ‘¡and as a steady downpour shedding judgment on all her offspring.

Rise up, O Hero, take Your captives, O Glorious One, take iYour plunder, O You who do valiantly. Lay Your hand upon the neck of Your enemies, and Your foot upon the backs of the slain. Crush the nations, Your adversaries, and may Your sword ~7devour guilty flesh. Fill Your land with glory, and Your heritance with blessing. An abundance of cattle in Your fields; silver and gold and precious 13stones in Your palaces. O Zion, rejoice greatly, and shine with joyful songs, O Jerusalem. Rejoice, all you cities of Judah, open your gate[s] forever that the wealth of the nations might be brought to you, and their kings shall serve you. All they that oppressed you shall bow down to you, and the dust 15[of your feet they shall lick. O daughter]s of my people shout out with a voice of joy, adorn yourselves with ornaments of glory Rule over the ki[ngdom of the ],16[,, . and I]srael to reign eternally.

17[ . . . ] them the mighty men of war, O Jerusalem [ . . . ] 18~3e exalt]ed above the heavens, O Lord, [and let Your glory be above all the earth . . . ]
19[ . . . ]

The blessings of the war recited by all the leaders after the victory.

20[,, . And then the Chief Priest shall stand] Col. 13 land his brothers the [pr]iests, the Levites, and all the elders of the Army with him. They shall bless _ from their position, the God of Israel and all His works of truth, and they shall curse 2Bepi]al there and all the spirits of his forces. And they shall say response: “Blessed is the God of Israel for all His holy purpose and His works _ of truth. And blessed are 3an those who serve Him richteously. who know Him by faith. 4And cursed is Belial for his contentious purpose, and accursed for his reprehensible rule. And cursed are all the spirits of his lot for their wicked purpose. sAccursed are they for all their filthy dirty service. For they are the lot of darkness, but the lot of God is light 6[eterna]1.

7Y[o]u are the God of our fathers. We bless Your name forever, for we are an [eter]na[l] people. You made a covenant with our fathers, and will establish it for their seed 8throughout the ages of eternity. In all the testimonies of Your glory there has been remembrance of Your [kindness] in our midst as an assistance to the remnant and the survivors for the sake of Your covenant 9and to re[count] Your works of truth and the judgments of Your wondrous strength. And You, [O God], created us for Yourself as an eternal people, and into the lot of light You cast us l¡in accordance with Your truth. You appointed the Prince of Light from of old to assist us, for in [His] l[ot are all sons of righteous]ness and all spirits of truth are in his dominion. You yourself llmade Belial for the pit, an angel of malevolence, his [dominio]n is in darkne[ss] and his counsel is to condemn and convict. All the spirits 120f his lot — the angels of destruction– walk in accord with the rule of darkness, for it is their only [des]ire. But we, in the lot of Your truth, rejoice in 13Your mighty hand.

We rejoice in Your salvation, and revel in [Your] hel[p and] Your [p]eace. Who is like You in strength, O God of Israel, and yet 14Your mighty hand is with the oppressed. What angel or prince is like You for [Your] effe[ctual] support, [fo]r of old You appointed for Yourself a day of gre[at battle [ . . . ] 13[ . . . ] to [sup]port truth and to destroy iniquity, to bring darkness low and to lend might to light, and to [ . . . ] 16[ . . ] for an eterna1 stand, and to annihilate all the Sons of Darkness and bring joy to [al]l [the Sons of Light….] 17[ . . . ]

18[ . . f]or You Yourself designated us for an app[ointed time . . . ]

19-20[,,, ] Col. 14 like the fire of His fury against the idols of Egypt.”

The blessings of the war recited by all the leaders in the morning before the battle.

7After they have withdrawn from the slain to enter the camp, all of them shall sing the hymn of return. In the morning they shall wash their clothes, cleanse themselves 30f the blood of the sinful bodies, and return to the place where they had stood, where they had formed the battle line before the slain of the enemy fell. There they shall all bless 4the God of Israel and joyously exalt His name together. They shall say in response: “Blessed is the God of Israel, who guards loving-kindness for His covenant and the appointed times 50f salvation for the people He redeems. He has called those who stumble unto wondrous [accomplishment]s, and He has gathered a congregation of nations for annihilation without remnant in order to raise up in judgment 6he whose heart has melted, to open a mouth for the dumb to sing [God’s] mighty deeds, and to teach feeble [hands] warfare. He gives those whose knees shake strength to stand, 7and strengthens those who have been smitten from the hips to the shoulder. Among the poor in spirit [ . . . ] a hard heart, and by those whose way is perfect shall all wicked nations come to an end; 9there will be no place for all their mighty men. But we are the remn[ant of Your people. Blessed is]

Your name, O God of loving-kindness, the One who kept the covenant for our forefathers. Throughout 9all our generations You have made Your mercies wondrous for the rem[nant of the people] during the dominion of Belial.With all the mysteries of his hatred they have not led us astray l¡from Your covenant. His spirits of destruction You have driven [away from us. And when the me]n of his dominion [condemned themselves], You have preserved the lives of Your redeemed. You raised up lithe fallen by Your strength, but those who are great in height You will cut dow[n to humble them. And] there is no rescuer for all their mighty men, and no place of refuge for their swift ones. To their honored men 12You will return shame, and all [their] vain existence [shall be as not]hing. But we, Your holy people, shall praise Your name for Your works of truth. 13Because of Your mighty deeds we shall exalt your] splendor in ~] epochs and appointed times of eternity, at the beginning of day, at night i4and at dawn and dusk. For Your [glorio]us p[urpose] is great and Your wondrous mysteries are in [Your] high heavens, to [raise u]p those for Yourself from the dust 15and to humble those of the gods.

16Rise up, rise up, O God of gods, and raise Yourself in power, [O King of Kings . . . ] t71et all the Sons of Darkness [scatter from before You.] Let the light of Your majesty shi[ne forever upon gods and men, as a fire burning in the dark places of the damned] ~8Let it burn [the damned of Sh]eol, as an [eternal] burning [among the transgressors . . . in all the appointed times of eternity.”]
19[They shall repeat all the thanksgiving hymns of battle there and then return to their camps ] 20[,, . ] Col. 15 For it is a time of distress for Isra[el, a fixed gime of battle against all the nations. The purpose of God is eternal redemption, 2but annihilation for al1 nations of wickedness. All those pr[epared] for battle shall set out and camp opposite the king of the Kittim and all the forces 3Of Belial that are assembled with him for a day [of vengeance] by the sword of God.

The final battle the first engagement.

4Then the Chief Priest shall stand, and with him his brothers the p[riests], the Levites, and all the men of the army. He shall read aloud Sthe prayer for the appointed time of batt~e, as is written in the boo]k SereLh Itto (The Rule of His Time), including all the words of their thanksgivings. Then he shall form there 6all the battle lines, as writ[ten in the Book of the Wair. Then the priest appointed for the time of vengeance by 7all his brothers shall walk about and encourage [them for the battl]e, and he shall say in response:”Be strong and courageous as warriors. 9Fear not, nor be discoura[ged and let not y]our [heart be faint.] Do not panic, neither be alarmed because of them. Do not 9turn back nor [flee from the]m. For they are a wicked congregation, all their deeds are in darkness; i¡it is [their] desire. [They have established al]l their refuge [in a lie], their strength is as smoke that vanishes, and all litheir vast assembly [is as chaff which blows away . . . de]solation, and shall not be found.

Every creature of greed shall wither quickly away 2[1ike a flow]er at ha[rvest time…. Come,] strengthen yourselves for the battle of God, for this day is an appointed time of battle 13[for~G]od against all the n[ations, . . . judgm]ent upon all flesh. The God of Israel is raising His hand in His wondrous [streng]th 14[againsq all the spirits of wick[edness…. m]ighty ones of the gods are girding themselves for battl[e, and] the formation[s of the3 h[o]ly ones is[are rea]dying themselves for a day of [vengeance . . . ] 16the God of I[srae]l [ . . . ] i7to remove Bel[ial . . . ] 15in his hell [ ] 19-20[ . . ] Col. 16 [until every source [of . . . is come to an end. For] the God of Israel has called out a sword against all the nations, and by the holy ones of His people He will do mightily.”

3They shall carry out all this Rule [on] that [day] at the place where they stand opposite the camps of the Kittim. Then the priests shall blow for them the trumpets 4Of remembrance. The gates of w[ar] shall open, [and] the infantry shall go out and stand in columns between the battle lines. The priests shall blow for them Sa signal for the formation and the columns [shall deplo]y at the sound of the trumpets until each man has taken his station. Then the priests shall blow for them 6a second signal: [signs for confron]tation.When they stand near the battle line of the Kittim, within throwing range, each man shall raise his hand with his weapon of 7war. Then the six [priests shall blow on the tr]umpets of the slain a sharp staccato note to direct the fighting. The Levites and the all the people with 8rams’ horns shall blow [a battle signa]l, a loud noise. As the sound goes forth, the infantry shall begin to bring down the slain of the Kittim, and all 9the people shall cease the signal, [but the priest]s shall continue blowing on the trumpets of the slain and the battle shall prevail against the Kittim.

The final battle the second engagement.

ÒWhen [Belial] prepares himself to assist the Sons of Darkness, and the slain among the infantry begin to fall by God’s mysteries and to test by these mysteries all those appointed for battle, 12the priests shall blow the trumpets of assembly so that another battle line might go forth as a battle reserve, and they shall take up position between the battle lines. ~3For those employed in battle they shall blow a signal to return. Then the Chief Priest shall approach and stand before the battle line, and shall encourage ~4their heart by [the wondrous might of God and] fortify their hands for His battle.

I5And he shall say in response: [“Blessed is God, for] He tests the he[ar]t of His people in the crucible. And not [ . . . ] have your slain [ . . . ]. For you have obeyed from of old i6the mysteries of God. [Now as for you, take courage and stand in the gap, do not fear when God strengthens . . . ] 17-20[ . . ] Col. 17 land He shall appoint their retribution with burning [ . . . ] those tested by the crucible. He shall sharpen the implements of war, and they shall not become blunt until [all the nations ofl wickedness [come to an end]. 2But, as for you, remember the judgment [of Nadab and Abi]hu, the sons of Aaron, by whose judgment God showed Himself holy before [all the people. But Eleazar] 3and Ithamar He preserved for Himself for an eternal covenant [ofpriesthood].
4But, as for you, take courage and do not fear them [ . . . for] their end is emptine and their desire is for the void. Their support is without st[rength] and they do not [know that from the God] of Israel is all that is and that will be. He [ . . . ] in all which exists for eternity. Today is His appointed time to subdue and to humiliate the prince of the realm sof wickedness.

He will send eternal support to the company of His redeemed by the power of the majestic angel of the authority of Michael. By eternal light 7He shall joyfully light up the covenant of Israel peace and blessing for the lot of GodÑto exalt the authority of Michael among the gods and the dominion 8Of Israel among all flesh. Righteousness shall rejoice on high, and al1 sons of His truth shall rejOice in eternal knowledge. But as for you, O sons of His covenant, 9take courage in God’s crucible, until He shall wave His hand and complete His fiery trials; His mysteries concerning your existence.”

The final battle the third engagement.

¡And after these words the priests shall blow for them a signal to form the divisions of the battle line. The columns shall be deployed at the sound of the trumpets, ~~until each man has taken his station. Then the priests shall blow another signal on the trumpets, signs for confrontation.When i2the infa[ntry] has approached [the battle] line of the Kitt[im], within throwing range, each man shall raise his hand with his weapon. Then the priests shall blow on the trumpets i30f the slain [and the Levites and the al]1 the people with rams’ horns shal1 sound a signal for battle. The infantry shall attack the army ~40f the Kittim, [and as the soun]d [of the si]gnal [goes forth], they shall begin to bring down their slain. Then all the people shall still the sound of the signal, while the priests iScontinuously blow on [the trumpets of the slain], and the bat[tl]e p[revail]s against the K[ittim, and the troops of Belia]l are defeated before them. ~6Thus in the th[ird] lot [ . . . ] to fall slain [ . . . ]

The final battle the fourth, fifth, and sixth engagements. Nothing of these engagements is preserved. The final battle the seventh engagement.

Col. 18 [and in the seven]th [log, when the great hand of God shall be lifted up against Belial and against all the fo[rc]es of his dominion for an eternal slaughter 2[,, . ] and the shout of the holy ones when they pursue Assyria. Then the sons of Japheth shall fall, never to rise again, and the Kitum shall be crushed without 3[remnant and survivor. So] the God of Israel shal1 raise His hand agcunst the whole multitude of Belial. At that time the priests shall sound a signal 4[on the six trumpegs of remembrance, and all the battle formations shall be gathered to them and divide against all the ca[mps of the Ki]ttim Sto completely destroy them. [And] when the sun hastens to set on that day, the Chief Priest and the priests and the [Levites] who are 6with him, and the chiefs [of the battle lines and the men] of the army shall bless the God of Israel there.

They shall say in response: Blessed is Your name, O God [of god]s, for 7You have done wondrous things for Your people, and have kept Your covenant for us from of old. Many times You have opened the gates of salvation for us 8for the sak[e of ~ Your [co]venant. [And You provided flor our affliction in accord with Your goodness toward us. You, O God of righteousness, have acted for the sake of Your name.

Thanksgiving for final victory.

[ . . . ] You have idone w]onders upon wonders with us, but f om of old there has been nothing like it, for You have known our appointed time. Today [Your] power has shined forth i~for us, [and] You [have shown] us the hand of Your mercies with us in eternal redemption, in order to remove the dominion of the enemy, that it might be no more; the hand of Your strength. ‘7In bat[tle You shall show Yourself strong aga]inst our enemies for an absolute slaughter. Now the day is pressing upon us [to] pursue their multitude, for You ~3[ . . . ] and the heart of warriors You have broken so that no one is able to stand. Yours is the might, and the battle is in Your hand, and there is no i4[God like You . . . ] Your [ . . . ] and the appointed times of Your will, and reprisal [ . -. . ] Your [enemie]s, and You will cut offfrom [ . . . ] is i9[,,, ] 20[,, . And we shall direct our contempt at kings,] Col. 19 i[derision and disdain at mi]ghty men. For our Majestic One is holy. The King of Glory is with us and the h[ost of His spirits is with our steps. Our horsemen are] 7[as the clouds and as the rnis]t covering the earth; as a steady downpour shedding judgment on ap1 her offspring.]

[Rise up, O Hero,] 3[Take Your captives, O Glorious One, and ta]ke Your plunder, O YouWho do valiantly. Lay Your hand upon the neck of Your enemies, and Your fo[o]t [upon the backs of 1 4[the slain. Crush the nations, Yo]ur [adversaries,] and let Your sword devour flesh. Fill Your land with glory, and Your inheritance with blessing. An ab[undance of cattle is] s[in Your fields, silver and gold] in Your palaces. O Zion, rejoice greatly, and rejoice, all you cities of Ju[dah. Open] 6[your gates forever, so thag the wealth of the nations [might be brought to you, and their kings shall serve you. All they that oppressed] you shall bow down to you, 7[and they shall lick the dust of your feet. O dau]ghters of my [peo]ple, burst out with a voice of joy. Adorn yourselves with ornaments of glory, and r[ule] over the ki[ngdom of the . . . ] 8[,, . ] Your [ . . . ]. and Israel for an [egernal dominion.

Ceremony after the final battle.

9[Then they shall gather] in the camp that n[ig]ht for rest until the morning. In the morning they shall come to the p[La]ce of the battle line, i¡[where the mi]ghty men ofthe Kittim [fell], as well as the multitude of Assyria, and the forces of all the nations that were assembled unto them, to see whether [the mu]ltitude of slain [are dead] ~~[with none to bury them; those who] fell there by the sword of God. And the Hi[gh] Priest shall approach there [with] his [depu]ty, his brothers [the priests,] ~2[and the Levites with the Leader] of the battle, and all the chiefs of the battle lines and [their officers . . . ] i3[ . . . together.When they stand before the s]lain of the Kitt[im, they shall pr]aise there the God [of Israel. And they shall say in response: . . . ] 14[ . . . to God most high and . . . ]

4Q491 (4Q Milhamah)

In the publication by the original editors, the fragments of 4Q491 were considered to be the remains of a single work. This work was thought to be a form of the War Scroll, one with extensive portions that found no exact match in the Cave 1 copy. A recent thorough study of the evidence, however, suggests that 4Q491 is instead three distinct manuscripts. The original editors had been deceived by the similar appearance of these manuscripts and had mistakenly grouped three texts together.
Thus reorganized, the manuscripts can now be characterized as follows. Manuscript A represents a text that is similar to the Cave 1 copy, but with a fuller representation of the seven engagements of the troops in the final battle. Manuscript B appears to be a shorter, “Reader’s Digest” form of the Cave 1 composition. Manuscript C comprises a hymn that is not even related to the War Scroll. Rather, it is related to the Thanksgiving Psalms (text 3).

The original publication of Manuscript C’s poem suggested that it was spoken by the Archangel Michael (cf. Dan. 10:13; Rev. 12:7), who features prominently in the War Scroll (lQM 17:6-7). The recently available manuscripts from Cave 4, however, now show that this notion is mistaken. Instead, the identity of the speaker here must be directly connected to that of the speaker in the Thanksgiving Psalms. Col. 26 of those psalms contains the same key elements we find here in Manuscript C. The first-person account, so characteristic of the Thanksgiving Psalms, is the form of address in both places. Moreover, in both poems the author makes the fantastic claim that none can be compared to him, because he is on equal footing with the heavenly beings (probably to be understood as angels)! If it is concluded that the Teacher of Righteousness wrote the Thanksgiving Psalms, he penned Manuscript C’s text as well.

A variant of the blessings of the war recited by all the leaders in the morning before the battle. Compare 1QM. 14:4419 above.

4Q491 Manuscript A Frag. 10 Col. 2 7[ ]8 in the Kitti[m . . . ] 9the infantrymen shall begin [to bring down the casualties of the Kittim . . . And the] I battle [shall prevail] against the Kittim [ . . . ] the corpses of the place of refining [shall begin] to fall by [the mysteries] of God. And the p[riests shall sound the trumpets of assembly . . . ] 12battle among the Kittim. And to the first battle formation . . . ]13 And the priest designated for the battle shall draw near and stand [be]fore [the battle formation . . . ]14 and he shal1 strengthen their hands by recounting His wondrous deeds. Then he shall sa[y] in response [ . . . fire of I vengeance, to consume among gods and men. For [He shai3] not [ . . . ] 16 flesh, except dust (?). For now [ . . . ] 37and [tne fire] shall consume as far as Sheol. And the council of wickedness [ . . . ]

Frags. 11-15 represent a variant of 1QM cols. 1~17 above.

Frag. 11 Col. 2 14[ . . . He is] faithful, and the relief which His redemption [ . . . ] i5[ . . . son]s of truth and to remove the faint of heart and to strengthen the he[art ] 16[,, . the batt]le today, the God of Isr[ael] shall subdue him (Belial?) [ . . . ] 17[ . . . ] with no place to stand. And [the kingdo]m shall be for God and the salvatio[n] for His people [ ] 18[,,, ] like as to Belial. But God’s covenant is peace [for] Israel in all the times [of eternity . . . ] i9And.after these words the prfests shall blow to order the second battle with the Kit[tim. And when each man has taken] 20his station, then the priests shall blow a second signal for advance.When they have approached the ba[ttle line of the Kittim, within throwing range,] 2leach man [shall ra]ise his hand with his battle weapon. Then the priests shall b[lo]w on the tr[umpegs of the [slain a staccato note] 22[to direct the battle and the Levites] and the all the people with rams’ horns shall so[u]nd [a loud] n[ote . . . And when] 23[the sound of the blast is heard, they shall begin to bring do]wn the casualties of the guilty. The sound of the [ ] 24[,,, ]

Frag. 13 1[ . . . width the gods [ . . . ] 2[ . . . ] the smallest of you shall pursue a tho[usand . . . ] 3[ . . . And after] these [w]ords, [the priests] shall blow [to order the third battle with the Kittim and the columns] 4[shall deploy at the sound of the trum]pets. When each m[an] has taken [his position] by division, [the priest shal1 blow a second blast on the trumpets for] S[advance. When] they [have approached] the battle line of the Kittim, within throwing range, [each man] shall raise his hand [with his battle weapon. The priests shall blow, to direcq 6[the battle, on the (rumpets of the slain, a staccato note. Then the Levites and all [the people with rams’ horns shall sound a battle blast, and the formations] 7[shall be figh]ting one behi-nd the other with no space between them. For [ ] 8[ . . . and] all the people shall answer, raising [on]e voice, and say [ . . . ]

Frag. 15 1[ . . . ] and there is no [ ] 2[,, . ] and a processio[n behold we are taking position to advance [ . . . ] 4[ . . . ] 5[ . . . And] he shall say to them in response,”Be strong and courageous [,,, ] 6[,, . For the] outstretched [hand] of God is upon all the Gentiles, [He shall] not [ . . . ] 7[ . . . ] kingship is [for God] Almighty and salvation is for His petple. And y[ou ] 8[,, . ] his [im]purity, the gods shall advance upon you with [ . . . ] 9[ . . . ] and to cast all [their] corpse[s . . . ] i¡[ . . . ] and all the spirits of [his] lot [ . . . ] 11[ . . . ] eternal, together wi[th ] 13[ . . . ] war [ . . . ]

Manuscript B presents a much shorter version of the War Scrol1 than the one discovered in Cave 1.

4Q491 Manuscript B Frags. 1-3 1Korah and hus congregation [ . . . ] judgment [ . . . ] 2before the whole congregation of [ . . . jud]gment as sign[s . . . ] 3and the chief of his angels with their [forces,] to direct their hand [in] battle. [ . . . ] for the chariotry and the hor[semen . . . ] 4The hand of God shall strike [ . . . ] for eternal annihilation [ . . . ] they shall atone for you [ . . . ] all the princes [ . . . ] sHis holiness in eternal lio]y [ . . . ] And after [ . . . ] the congregation and apl] the prince[s . . . ] shall not go to the enemy battle lines [ . . . ]

6This is the rule when they camp and [ . . . and in] their divisions [ . . . ] around, outside [ . . . ] and women, young boys, and any man who is aff~icted with impurity in his flesh shall not come near]

7[the battle] line. The craftsmen [and blacksm]iths and those enlisted as [ . . . ] for their watches [ . . the battle line until they return.

And there shall be two thousand cubits between the [camps and the latrine, so] 8no nakedness might be seen in their surroundings. And when they set out to prepare for battle [so as to sub]due [the enemy], some of them [shall be] dismissed by lot from each tribe according to those enlisted for [each] day’s duty. 9That day, men from each tribe [shall] go out from the camps to the house of me[eting . . . and] the [priest]s, the Levites, and all the chiefs of the camps [shall] go out to them. Then they shal1 pass before [them] there [ . . . ] i¡by thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens. Each man who is not [clean in regard to his genitals] that [nig]ht [shall] no[t g]o out with them to battle. For the holy angels are with their battle lines [ . . . ] ‘~[When] the formation standing ready to pass to all [ . . . ] of battle for that day [g]oes up [ . . . ], three formations shall stand one behind the other, and they shall establish a space between [each] battle formation. i2[Then they shall go out] to the battle in turn. These are the [infan]trymen and alongside them are [cavalry]men, [and they shall take their position between the battle] formations. But if they establish an ambush for a battle formation, the three ambushing formations shall [stay at a dist]ance and not ris[e up . . . ] ‘3[ . . . ] the battle.When they [h]ear the trumpets of alarm, the [infantry]men [shall begin to bring do]wn the guilty casualties. Then the ambush shall rise up from its place and also order its [battle form]ations [ . . . 3

14The reassembly: from the right and left, from be[hind and before, the f]our direction[s . . . ] in the battles of annihilation. All the battle formation[s] which engaged the en[emy] for battle [shall be gathered] :5together. The [fi]rst battle formation shall [set out-to battle] and the second shall remain standting] at their post.When their period is completed, the first shall return and s[tand . ] :6The sec[ond foray . . . ] when the battle is arrayed.When the second battle formation shal1 have completed their period, they shall return and t[ake their position.] i7And the t[hird foray . . . Then the Chief Priest shall take his stand with his brothers the priests,] the Levites, and men [of the arm]y.

And all the while the priests shall be sounding on the trumpets[ . . . ]

[ ] 18A lin[en] sash [of twined fine linen, violet, purple, and crimson, and a varicolored design, the work of a skillful workman, and decorated c]aps [on ‘their heads. And they shall not take them into the sanctuary,3 f [or] they are garments for bat[tle.]
According to all [this] rule i . . . ] chiefs of the camp [ . . . ] 2¡for [ . . . ] all [ . . . ] they will completely annihilate [ . . . ]

This manuscript, mistakenly labeled as a copy of the War Scroll, is instead a copy of a hymn similar to the Thanksgiving Psalms.

4Q491 Manuscript C Frag. 11 Col. 1 8[,, . ] who does wondrous things [ . . . ] 9[ . . . in the pow] er of his strength the rig[hteou]s cry out, and the holy ones rejoice [ . . . ] justly lOt . . I]srael. He established His truth from of old, and the mysteries of His cunning in eve[ry . . . ] strength ~~[ . . . ] and the society of the oppressed as an eternal congregation [ . . . ] perfect of 2[ . . . ] eternal, a mighty throne in the congregation of the gods. None of the ancient kings shall sit on it, and their nobles tshall] not [ . . . There are no]ne comparable 3[to me in] my glory, no one shall be exalted besides me; none shall associate with me. For I dwelt in the [ . . . ] in the heavens, and there is no one i4[ . . . ]. I am reckoned with the gods and my abode is in the holy congregation. [My] desi[re] is not according to the flesh, and everything precious to me is in the glory ~5[ofl the holy [habit]ation.

[Wh]om have I considered contemptible? Who is comparable to me in my glory? Who of those who sail the seas shall return telling i6[of] my [equa]l?Who shall [experience] troubles like me? And who is like me [in bearing] evil? I have not been taught, but no teaching compares i7[with my teaching].Who then shall attack me when [I] ope[n my mouth]?Who can endure the utterance of my lips? Who shall arraign me and compare with my judgment i3[ . . . Fo]r I am reck[oned] with the gods, [and] my glory with that of the sons of the King. Neither [refined go]ld, nor the gold of Ophir 19[ . . . ]

20[,, . ] righteous ones among the gods of [ . . . ] in the holy habitation. Praise Him in song [ ] 2~[ . . . P]roclaim the meditation of joy [ . . . ] joyously forever. There is not [ ] 22[,, . ] to raise up a horn Of [ ] 23[,,, ] to make known His hand in strength [ . . . ]

4Q493 (4Q Milhamahc)

This manuscript is reminiscent of 1QM 7:9-9:9, but it diverges markedly from the Cave 1 copy. Perhaps it represents another “deviant” version such as 4Q491 (Manuscripts A and B). But it is equally possible that this arragment may have been unrelated to the War Scroll literature, instead coming from a handbook on priestly duties.

The number of this fragment suggests a physical connection with frag. 1 1 col 2. The original publication proposed a join of two separate pieces of parchment that is not accepted here.

For the war: The priests, the sons of Aaron, shall take their stand before [the] battle formations 2and sound a blast on the trumpets of remembrance. Afterwards they shall open the gates for the 3infantrymen. Then the priests shall sound a blast on the trumpets of battle [to adva]nce on the battle line 40f the Gentiles. The priests shaI1 go out from among the slain and stand on [either] side of the [ . . . ], Sbeside the catapult (?) and the ballista (?). Thus they shall not profane the anointing of their priestly office [with the blood of the s]lai[n]. 6[And] they shall not approach any battle formation of the infantry. They shall sound an alarmÑwith a sharp note in order that the me[n of] battle 7might set out to advance between the battle linesÑon the trumpets [of the slain]. Then [they] shall [beg]in ato draw near to the battle.When their periods of engagement are completed, they shall sound a blast for them on the tru[mp]ets of withdrawal 9to enter the gates. Then the second formation shal1 set out.

According to this entire rule the Le[vites] i¡shall be signaling them at the proper time.When they set out, they shall blow a signal for them on the t[rumpets of assembly], iiand when [they] have comple[ted their foray], on the trumpets of alarm, [and when] they return, they shal1 sound a sig[nal for them on the trumpets] i20f as[sembly.] According to [this] ordin[ance] they sound the signal for ev[ery ba]ttle formation.

13[ . . . ] upon the trumpets of the Sabbaths [it is written . . . ] 14[ . . . for] the regular [grain offering] and the burnt offerings it is written, [ . . . ]

This small text ignited a controversy when a portion of it was published in 1974. It speaks of a powerful figure who shall appear in a time of tribulation and be called “the son of God” and “son of the Most High” and whom all nations obey. The expressions irresistibly recall the language that the Gospels use of Jesus especially in the episode describing the angel’s message to Mary that she would bear a son: “He will be great, and will be called the Son of the Most High . . . and of his kingdom there will be no end” (Luke 1:32-33)

At the time, some scholars argued that the published p: tion proved an important idea: that an earthly king destined to come and bring peace (i.e., the Messiah) would also be called by Second-Temple Jews “the Son of God.” Certain biblical texts could be taken to support this idea (e.g., 2 Sam. 7:14), and if true, it would shed substantial light on the New Testament’s portrayal of Jesus. Other scholars, however, understood the text’s “Son of God” as a villain, one who usurps the place of God but is subsequently overthrown by the “people of God,” who have God on their side. Now that the entire work has finally become available, a careful reading confirms this second,”Antichrist” option.

The historical background ofthis text may well be the persecution oftheJews under the Syrian tyrant Antiochus IV in the period 170-164 B.C.E. This rulerÍs chosen second name, “Epiphanes” (Greek for “appearance”), encapsulated the notion of a human king as God manifest. Such human pretensions to deity have never been welcome in Judaism and were condemned out of hand in the prophecies of Isanah (14:12-21) and Ezekiel (28:1-10). Jesus’ claims to morethan-human status were likewise rejected by his Gontemporaries:”We would stone you for blasphemy, because you, though you are a man, are making yourself God” John 10:33). A similar distaste for claims to divinity seems to animate this fragmentary prophecy.

The seer receives the power to interpret the king’s vision.

Col. 1 [. . . a spirit from God] rested upon him, he fell before the throne.
(The beginning of the interpretation: war and slaughter is imminent. This tribulation will culminate in the accession to power of a cruel tyrant.)

2[ . . . O ki]ng, wrath is coming to the world, and your years 3[shall be shortened . . . such] is your vision, and al1 of it is about to come unto the world. 4[ . . Amid] great [signs], tribulation is coming upon the land.

5[ . . . After much killing] and slaughter, a prince of nations 6[will arise . . . ] the king of Assyria and Egypt 7[ . . . ] he will be ruler over the land 8[ , ] ~ W1] be subject to him and all wid obey 9[him].
(The tyrant’s son will succeed him :and begin to accrue to himself the honor due only to God. Yet the reign o father and son will be brief.)

[Also his son] will be called The Great and be designated by his name. CoL 2 ‘He will be called the Son of God, they will call him the son of the Most High. But like the meteors 2that you saw in your vision, so will be their kingdom. They will reign only a few years over the land while pewoples tramples people and nation tramples nation.

Deliverance from distress finally comes when the people of God arise, bringing peace and prosperity. God is working through them and in them and his rule shall finally prevail.
4until the people of God arise; then all will have rest from warfare. Their kingdom will be an eternal kingdom, and all their paths will be righteous. They will judge 6the land justly, and al1 nations will make peace.

Warfare wil1 cease from the land, 7and all the nations shall do obeisance to them. The great Cod will be their help, 8He Himself will fight for them, putting peoples into their power, 90verthrowing them all before them. God’s rule will be an eternal rule and all the depths of iÁ[the earth are His].

1. The all-holy mother of God was about to proceed to the Mount of Olives to pray; and praying to the Lord our God she said: In the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit; let the archangel Gabriel descend, that he may tell me concerning the chastisements and concerning things in heaven and on the earth and under the earth. And as she said the word the archangel Michael descended with the angels of the East and the West and angels of the South and the North, and they saluted the highly favoured one and said to her: Hail, reflection of the Father, hail dwelling of the Son, hail command of the Holy Spirit, hail firmament of the seven heavens, hail firmament of the eleven strongholds, hail worship of the angels, hail loftier than the prophets unto the throne of God. And the holy mother of God said to the angel: Hail Michael, commander-in-chief, the minister of the invisible Father, hail Michael, commander-in-chief, associate of my Son, hail Michael, commander-in-chief, most dread of the six-winged, hail Michael, commander-in-chief, who rules through all things and art worthy to stand beside the throne of the Lord, hail Michael, commander-in-chief, who art about to sound the trumpet and awaken those who have been asleep for ages: hail Michael, commander-in-chief, first of all unto the throne of God.

2. And having greeted all the angels in like manner, the highly favoured one prayed the commander-in-chief regarding the chastisements, saying: Tell to me all things on the earth. And the commander-in-chief said to her: If you ask me, highly favoured one, I will tell you. And the highly favoured one said to him: How many are the chastisements with which the race of man is chastised? And the archangel said to her: The chastisements are innumerable. And the highly favoured one said to him: Tell me the things in heaven and on the earth.

3. Then the commander-in-chief, Michael, commanded the Western angels that revelation should be made, and Hades opened, and she saw those who were chastised in Hades: and there lay there a multitude of men and women, and there was a great lamentation. And the highly favoured one asked the commander-in-chief: Who are these and what is their sin? And the commander-in-chief said: These, all holy, are those who did not worship the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit and for this cause they are thus chastised here.

4. And she saw in another place a great darkness: and the all holy said: What is this darkness and who are they who are being chastised? And the commander-in-chief said: Many souls are lying in this darkness. And the all holy one said: Let this darkness be taken away in order that I may see this chastisement also. And the commander-in-chief said to the highly favoured one: It is not possible, all holy, that you should see this chastisement also. And the angels guarding them answered and said: We have a command from the invisible Father that they shall not see the light till your blessed Son shall shine forth. And plunged in grief the all holy lifted up her eyes to the angels touching the undefiled word of the Father, and said: In the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit let the darkness be taken away, that I may see this chastisement also. And straightway that darkness was lifted up and covered the seven heavens: and there lay a great multitude of both men and women, and there arose a great lamentation and a great cry began. And seeing them the all holy wept and said to them: What are you doing, wretched ones? Who are you? And how are you found there? And there was no voice or hearkening. And the angels guarding them said: Why do you not speak to the highly favoured one? And those who were under chastisement said to her: O highly favoured one, from eternity we see not the light, and we are not able to keep off that up there. And splashing pitch flowed down upon them: and seeing them the all holy wept. And again those who were being chastised said to her: How do you ask concerning us, holy lady, Mother of God? Your blessed Son came to The earth and did not make enquiry concerning us, neither Abraham the patriarch, nor John the Baptist, nor Moses the great prophet, nor the Apostle Paul, and unto us their light shone not: and now, all holy Mother of God, the armour of the Christians, the bringer of great comfort on account of the Christians, how do you ask concerning us? Then the all holy Mother of God said to Michael, the commander-in-chief: What is their sin? And Michael, the commander-in-chief, said: These are they who did not believe in the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, and did not confess you to be the Mother of God, and that the Lord Jesus Christ was born of you and took flesh, and for this cause they are chastised there. And again weeping, the all holy Mother of God said to them: Why did ye so greatly err, wretched ones? Did ye not hear that the whole creation names my name? And having said these words the darkness fell over them as it was from the beginning.

5. And the commander-in-chief said: Whither would you go, highly favoured one? To the West or to the South? And the highly favoured answered: Let us go to the South. And immediately there appeared the cherubim and the seraphim and four hundred angels, and led out the highly favoured one to the South, where came out the river of fire, and there there lay a multitude of men and women, some up to the girdle, others up to the neck, and others up to the crown of the head: and seeing them the all holy Mother of God cried out with a loud voice to the commander-in-chief and said: Who are these, and what is their sin who stand in the fire up to the girdle? And the commander-in-chief said: These, all holy one, are they who inherited the curse of father and mother, and for this cause they are thus chastised here as accursed.

6. And the all holy one said: And who are these standing in the fire up to the breasts? And the commander-in-chief said: These are whosoever cast off their wives and defiled them in adultery, and for this cause they are thus chastised here.

7. And the all holy one said to the commander-in-chief: Who are these standing up to the neck in the flame of the fire? And the commander-in-chief said: These, all holy one, are whosoever ate of the flesh of men. And the all holy one said: And how is it possible for one man to eat of the flesh of another? And the commander-in-chief said: Listen, all holy one, and I will tell you: These are they whosoever brought down their own children out of their own wombs and cast them out as food for dogs, and whosoever gave up their brothers in the presence of kings and governors, these ate the flesh of man, and for this cause they are thus chastised.

8. And the all holy one said: Who are these set in the fire up to the crown? And the commander-in-chief said: These, all holy one, are whosoever lay hold of the precious cross and swear to a lie: by the power of the cross of the Lord. The angels tremble and worship with fear, and men lay hold of it and swear to a lie and do not know what they testify: and for this cause they are thus chastised here.

9. And in another place the all holy one saw a man hung by the feet, and worms devoured him. And she asked the commander-in-chief: Who is this and what is his sin? And the commander-in-chief said: This is he who took usury for his gold, and for this cause he is thus chastised here.

10. And she saw a woman hanging by her two ears, and all the beasts came out of her mouth and gnawed her in pieces: and the highly favoured one asked the commander-in-chief: Who is she, and what is her sin? And the commander-in-chief said: She is she who turned aside into strange houses and those of her neighbours and spoke evil words to make strife, and for that cause she is thus chastised here.

11. And seeing these things the all holy Mother of God wept and said to the commander-in-chief: It were well for man that he had not been born. And the commander-in-chief said: Verily, all holy one, you have not seen the great chastisements. And the all holy one said to the commander-in-chief: Come, Michael, great commander-in-chief, and lead me that I may see all the chastisements. And the commander-in-chief said: Where do you wish, all holy one, that we should go? And the highly favoured one answered: To the West: and straightway the cherubim appeared and led the highly favoured to the West.

12. And she saw a cloud full of fire and in it there was a multitude of men and women. And the all holy one said: What was their sin? And the commander-in-chief said: These, all holy one, are they who on the morning of the Lord’s day sleep like the dead, and for that reason they are thus chastised here. And the all holy one said: If anyone cannot rise, what shall he do? And the commander-in-chief said: Listen, all holy one: if anyone’s house is fastened on the four (sides?) and surrounds him and he cannot come out, he has forgiveness.

13. And she saw in another place burning benches of fire and on them sat a multitude of men and women and burned on them. And the all holy one asked: Who are these and what is their sin? And the commander-in-chief said: These, all holy one, are they who do not rise up to the presbyter when they enter into the church of God, and for this cause they are thus chastised here.

14. And the all holy one saw in another place an iron tree and it had branches of iron, and on it there hung a multitude of men and women by their tongues. And seeing them the all holy one wept, and asked the commander-in-chief saying: Who are these and what was their sin? And the commander-in-chief said: These are perjurers, blasphemers, slanderers, whosoever divided brothers from brothers. And the all holy one said: How is it possible to divide brothers from brothers? And the commander-in-chief said: Listen, all holy one, and I will tell you about this: When some from among the nations desired to be baptised, he would say to them one word: You foul-feeding, unbelieving Gentile; because he thus blasphemed, he shall receive ceaseless retribution.

15. And in another place the all holy one saw a man hanging from his four extremities, and from his nails blood gushed vehemently, and his tongue was tied in a flame of fire, and he was unable to groan and say the Kyrie eleïson me. And when she had seen him the all holy one wept and herself said the Kyrie eleïson thrice: and after the saying of the prayer, came the angel who had authority over the scourge and loosed the man’s tongue: and the all holy one asked the commander-in-chief: Who is this wretched one who has this chastisement? And the commander-in-chief said: This, all holy one, is the steward who did not the will of God, but ate the things of the church and said: He who ministers to the altar shall be nourished from the altar: and for this cause he is thus chastised here. And the all holy one said: Let it be unto him according to his faith. And again he tied his tongue.

16. And Michael, the commander-in-chief said: Come hither, all holy one, and I will show unto you where the priests are chastised. And the all holy one came out and saw presbyters hanging by their twenty nails, and fire came out of their heads. And seeing them the all holy one asked the commander-in-chief: Who are these and what is their sin? And the commander-in-chief said: These, all holy one, are they who stand beside the throne of God, and when they sang of the body of our Lord Jesus Christ, the pearls fell out, and the awful throne of heaven shook and the footstool of our Lord Jesus Christ trembled, and they did not perceive it: and for this cause they are thus chastised here.

17. And the all holy one saw a man and a winged beast having three heads like flames of fire: the two heads were towards his eyes and the third head towards his mouth. And seeing him the all holy one asked the commander-in-chief: Who is this, that he cannot save himself from the mouth of the dragon? And the commander-in-chief said to her: This, all holy one, is the reader who does not practise in his own habits according to what is worthy of the holy Gospel: and for this cause he is thus chastised here.

18. And the commander-in-chief said: Come hither, all holy one, and I will show you where the angelic and archangelic form is chastised. She proceeded and saw them lying in the fire and the sleepless worm gnawed them: and the all holy one said: Who are these, and what is their sin? And the commander-in-chief said: These, all holy one, are they who possessed the archangelic and apostolic form: hearken, all holy one, concerning this: on earth they were called patriarchs and bishops, and they were not worthy of their name: on earth they heard ‘Bless (the Lord) ye saints,’ and in heaven they were not called saints, because they did not act as bearers of the archangelic form: and for this cause they are thus chastised here.

19. And she saw women hanging by their nails, and a flame of fire came out of their mouth and burned them: and all the beasts coming out of the fire gnawed them to pieces, and groaning they cried out: Have pity on us, have pity, for we are chastised worse than all those who are under chastisement. And seeing them the all holy one wept, and asked the commander-in-chief, Michael: Who are these and what is their sin? And the commander-in-chief said: These are the wives of presbyters who did not honour the presbyters, but after the death of the presbyter took husbands, and for this cause they are thus chastised here.

20. And the all holy one saw after the same manner also a deaconess hanging from a crag and a beast with two heads devoured her breasts. And the all holy one asked: What is her sin? And the commander-in-chief said: She, all holy one, is an archdeaconess who defiled her body in fornication, and for this cause she is thus chastised here.

21. And she saw other women hanging over the fire, and all the beasts devoured them. And the all holy one asked the commander-in-chief: Who are these and what is their sin? And he said: These are they who did not do the will of God, lovers of money and those who took interest on accounts, and the immodest.

22. And when she had heard these things the all holy one wept and said: Woe unto sinners. And the commander-in-chief said: Why do you lament, all holy one? Now verily you have not seen the great chastisements. And the highly favoured one said: Come, Michael, the great commander-in-chief of the powers above, tell me how I may see all the chastisements. And the commander-in-chief said: Where do you wish that we should go, all holy one? To the East or towards the left parts of Paradise? And the all holy one said: To the left parts of Paradise.

23. And immediately when she had spoken, the cherubim and seraphim stood beside her and led the highly favoured one out to the left parts of Paradise. And behold, there was a great river, and the appearance of the river was blacker than pitch, and in it there were a multitude of men and women: it boiled like a furnace of forges, and its waves were like a wild sea over the sinners: and when the waves rose, they sank the sinners ten thousand cubits and they were unable to keep it off and say: Have mercy on us, you just judge: for the sleepless worm devoured them, and there was no reckoning of the number of those who devoured them. And seeing the all holy Mother of God the angels who chastised them cried out with one voice: Holy is God who has compassion on account of the Mother of God: we give you thanks, O Son of God, that from eternity we did not see the light, and today through the Mother of God we have seen the light: and again they shouted with one voice, saying: Hail, highly favoured Mother of God: Hail, lamp of the inaccessible light: Hail to you also, Michael, the commander-in-chief, you that are ambassador from the whole creation: for we, seeing the chastisement of sinners are greatly grieved. And the all holy one, when she saw the angels humbled on account of the sinners, lamented and said: Woe to sinners and their neighbours. And the all holy one said: Let us see the sinners. And the highly favoured one, coming with the archangel Michael and all the armies of the angels lifted up one voice saying: Lord have mercy. And after the making of the prayer earnestly, the wave of the river rested and the fiery waves grew calm, and the sinners appeared as a grain of mustard-seed: and seeing them the all holy one lamented and said: What is this river, and what are its waves? And the commander-in-chief said: This river is the outer fire, and those who are being tortured are the Jews who crucified our Lord Jesus Christ the Son of God, and who refused holy baptism, and those who commit fornication and sin against the sweet and passionless perfume of marriage, and he who debauches mother and daughter, and the poisoners and those who slay with the sword, and the women who strangle their offspring. And the all holy one said: According to their faith so be it unto them. And straightway the waves rose over the sinners and the darkness covered them. And the commander-in-chief said: Hearken, you highly favoured one: if anyone shall be cast into this darkness, his remembrance shall never be in the sight of God. And the all holy Mother of God said: Woe to sinners, because the flame of the fire is everlasting.

24. And the commander-in-chief said: Come hither, all holy one, and I will show unto you the lake of fire: and see where the race of the Christians is chastised. And the all holy one proceeded and saw: and some she heard, but others she did not see: and she asked the commander-in-chief: Who are these, and what is their sin? And the commander-in-chief said: These, all holy one, are those who were baptised and arrayed under the oracle of Christ, but worked the works of the devil and wasted the time of their repentance: and for this cause they are thus chastised here.

25. And she said: I pray, one request will I make of you, let me also be chastised with the Christians, because they are the children of my son. And the commander-in-chief said: Rest in Paradise, holy lady, Mother of God. And the all holy one said: I pray you, move the fourteen firmaments and the seven heavens, and let us pray for the Christians that the Lord our God may hearken unto us and have mercy on them. And the commander-in-chief said: As the Lord God lives, the great name, seven times a day and seven times a night, when we lead up the hymn of the Lord, we make remembrance for the sake of sinners, and the Lord accounts us as naught.

26. And the all holy one said: I pray you, commander-in-chief, command the armies of the angels and let them place me on the height of heaven and let me into the presence of the invisible Father. And immediately the commander-in-chief commanded, and the chariot of the cherubim and seraphim appeared, and they exalted the highly favoured one to the height of heaven and placed her in the presence of the invisible Father: And she stretched forth her hands to the undefiled throne of the Father and said: Have mercy, O Lord, on the Christian sinners, for I saw them being chastised and I cannot bear their complaint. Let me go forth and be chastised myself for the Christians. I do not pray, O Lord, for the unbelieving Jews, but for the Christians I entreat your compassion. And there came a second voice from the invisible Father saying: How can I have mercy on them, when they did not have mercy on their own brothers? And the all holy one said: Lord, have mercy on the sinners: behold the chastisements, for every creature on the earth calls upon my name: and when the soul comes forth out of the body, it cries saying, Holy Lady, Mother of God. Then the Lord said to her: Hearken, all holy Mother of God, if anyone names and calls upon your name, I will not forsake him, either in heaven or on earth.

27. And the all holy one said: Where is Moses? Where are all the prophets and fathers who never sinned? Where are you, holy Paul of God? Where is the holy Lord’s Day, the boast of the Christians? Where is the power of the precious and life-giving cross, which delivered Adam and Eve from the ancient curse? Then Michael and all the angels raised one voice saying: Lord, have mercy on the sinners. Then Moses also cried: Have mercy, Lord, on those to whom I gave your law. Then John also called: Have mercy, Lord, on those to whom I gave your Gospel. Then Paul cried: Have mercy, Lord, on those to whom I brought your epistles in the Church. And the Lord God said: Hearken, all you righteous: if according to the law which Moses gave, and according to the Gospel which John gave, and according to the epistles which Paul carried, they thus be judged. And they had nothing to say except, Have mercy, O just judge.

28. And the all holy Mother of God said: Have mercy, Lord, on the Christians, because they kept your law and gave heed to your gospel, but they were simple ones. Then the Lord said to her: Hearken, all holy one: if anyone did evil to them and they did not requite him the evil, you say well that they attended to both my law and my gospel, but if he did not do them wrong and they requited him evil, how may I say that these are holy men? Now they shall be rewarded according to their wrongdoing. Then all hearing the voice of the Lord had nothing to answer; and the all holy one, when she saw that the saints were at a loss, and their Lord did not hear, and his mercy was hidden from them, then the all holy one said: Where is Gabriel, who announced unto me the Hail, you that from eternity shall conceive him who is without beginning like the Father, and now does not look upon sinners? Where is the great commander-in-chief? Come hither, all you saints whom God justified, and let us fall down in the presence of the invisible Father, in order that the Lord God may hear us, and have mercy on sinners. Then Michael, the commander-in-chief, and all the saints fell on their faces in the presence of the invisible Father, saying: Have mercy, Lord, on the Christian sinners.

29. Then the Lord, seeing the prayer of the saints, had compassion and said: Go down, my beloved son, and because of the prayer of the saints let your face shine on earth to sinners. Then the Lord came down from his undefiled throne: and when they saw Him, those who were under chastisement raised one voice saying: Have mercy on us, King of ages. Then the Lord of all things said: Hearken, all you sinners and righteous men: I made paradise and made man after my image: but he transgressed, and for his own sins was delivered to death: but I did not suffer the works of my hands to be tyrannized over by the serpent: wherefore I bowed the heavens and came down and was born of Mary, the holy undefiled Mother of God, that I might set you free: I was baptised in Jordan in order that I might save the creature (nature) which had grown old under sin: I was nailed to the cross to free you from the ancient curse: I asked for water and you gave me vinegar mingled with gall: I was laid in the grave: I trampled on the enemy: I raised up mine elect, and even thus ye would not hear me. But now, because of the prayer of my mother Mary, because she has wept much for your sake, and because of Michael my archangel, and because of the multitude of my saints, I grant you to have rest on the day of Pentecost to glorify the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit.

30. Then all the angels and archangels, thrones, lordships, authorities, governments, powers, and the many-eyed cherubim and the six-winged seraphim and all the apostles and prophets and martyrs and all the saints raised one voice, saying: Glory to you, O Lord: glory to you, lover of men: glory to you, King of ages: glory be to your compassion: glory be to your long suffering: glory be to your unspeakable justice of judgment, because you have been long-suffering with sinners and impious men: Yours is it to pity and to save. To him be the glory and the power to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit for ever and ever. Amen.

Estimated Range of Dating: 178-178 A.D.

Chronological List of Early Christian Writings
Online Text for Letter from Vienna and Lyons

Roberts-Donaldson Translation
Online Resources for Letter from Vienna and Lyons

Catholic Encyclopedia: Lyons
Offline Resources for Letter from Vienna and Lyons

J. Quasten, Patrology Vol. I (Thomas More 1983 reprint)
Recommended Books for the Study of Early Christian Writings
Information on Letter from Vienna and Lyons

J. Quasten writes (Patrology, vol. 1, p. 180): “The Letter of the Churches of Vienne and Lyons to the Churches of Asia and Phrygia, which gives a moving account of the sufferings of the martyrs who died in the sever persecution of the Church of Lyons in 177, or 178, and which is preserved by Eusebius (Hist. eccl. 5,1,1-2,8), is one of the most interesting documents of the persecutions. It does not conceal the apostasy of some members of the community. Among the courageous martyrs we see Bishop Photinus ‘being over ninety years of age and very sick in body, scarcely breathing from the sickness, but strengthened by zeal of the spirit from his vehement desire for martyrdom’; the admirable Blandina, a frail and delicate female slave, who upheld the courage of her companions by her example and words; Maturus, a neophyte of amazing fortitude; Sanctus, a deacon of Vienne; Alexander, the physician; and Ponticus, a boy of fifteen years of age.”

Estimated Range of Dating: 189-199 A.D.

Chronological List of Early Christian Writings
Online Text for Victor I

Eusebius H.E. on Victor
Online Resources for Victor I

Catholic Encyclopedia: Pope St. Victor I
Wace: Victor, bishop of Rome
Offline Resources for Victor I

J. Quasten, Patrology Vol. I (Thomas More 1983 reprint)
Recommended Books for the Study of Early Christian Writings
Information on Victor I

J. Quasten writes (Patrology, vol. 1, p. 279): “Victor wrote several letters which dealt with the paschal controversy, and are of importance for the history of the Roman primacy (Euseb., Hist. eccl. 5,23-25). St. Jerome (De viris illustr. 34) seems to refer to these letters when he states that Victor composed ‘super quaestione paschae et alia quaedam opuscula’. There must have been another document by Victor because, according to Eusebius (Hist. eccl. 5,28,6-9), Victor excommunicated Theodotus, the currier from Byzantium, who taught that Jesus except for his miraculous birth was a man like all other men, and that he became God only after his resurrection. It remains very doubtful whether Victor was the first ecclesiastical author to write in Latin, as Jerome suggests (De viris illustr. 53).”

Estimated Range of Dating: 120-160 A.D.

Chronological List of Early Christian Writings
Online Text for Valentinus

Valentinus’s Myth according to Irenaeus
The Divine Word Present in the Infant
On the Three Natures
Adam’s Faculty of Speech
Adam’s Name
Jesus’ Digestive System (Epistle to Agathopous)
Annihilation of the Realm of Death
The Source of Common Wisdom (On Friends)
The Vision of God (Epistle on Attachments)
Summer Harvest
Gospel of Truth by Valentinus or a Valentinian Gnostic.
Online Resources for Valentinus

Valentinus and the Valentinian Tradition
Valentinus – A Gnostic for All Seasons
Glenn Davis: Valentinus and the Valentinians
Catholic Encyclopedia: Valentinus and Valentinians
Esoteric Temple Traditions and Valentinian Worship: Abstract of April D. De Conick
The Invisible Basilica: Valentinus
Bill Craig: From Easter to Valentinus
Clyde Curry Smith: Valentinus
Wace: Valentinus
The Columbia Encyclopedia: Valentinus
1911 Encyclopedia: Valentinus and Valentinians
Offline Resources for Valentinus

Bentley Layton, The Gnostic Scriptures: A New Translation With Annotations and Introductions (Doubleday 1987)
Recommended Books for the Study of Early Christian Writings
Information on Valentinus

Bentley Layton writes (The Gnostic Scriptures, p. 217):

Valentinus (A.D. ca. 100-ca. 175) was born in the Egyptian Delta, at Phrenobis (see Map 4). He enjoyed the good fortune of a Greek education in the nearby metropolis of Alexandria, the world capital of Hellenistic culture. In Alexandria he probably met the Christian philosopher Basilides (see Part Five), who was teaching there, and may have been influenced by him. There, too, he must have made the acquiantance of Greek philosophy. Valentinus’s familiarity with Platonism may have come to him through study of Hellenistic Jewish interpretation of the bible, for in a passage of one of his sermons he seems to show knowledge of a work by the great Alexandrian Jewish allegorist and philosopher Philo Judaeus (ca. 30 B.C.-A.D. ca. 45). [GTr 36:35f may use the allegory of Gn 2:8 found in Philo Judaeus, “Questions and Anwswers on Genesis” 1.6.] Valentinus’s distinguished career as a teacher began in Alexandria, sometime between A.D. 117 and 138. Since most of the Fragments of his works (VFr) were preserved by a second-century Christian intellectual in Alexandria, Valentinus may have written and published in Alexandria while he was teaching there. If so, his considerable expertise in rhetorical composition, which is evident in these Fragments, must have been acquired while he was studying in Alexandria. Valentinus’s followers in Alexandria later reported that he had claimed a kind of apostolic sanction for his teaching by maintaining that he had received lessons in Christian religion from a certain Theudas, who—he said— had been a student of St. Paul. If there is any truth in this claim, his contact with Theudas and his reading of St. Paul may have occurred in Alexandria.

J. Quasten writes (Patrology, v. 1, p. 260):

By far more important than Basilides and his son Isidore was their contemporary Valentinus. Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. 3,4,3) states of him: ‘Valentinus came to Rome in the time of Hyginus (ca. 136 to 140 A.D.), flourished under Pius (ca. 150 to 155) and remained until Anicetus’ (ca. 155 to 160). Epiphanius (Haer. 31,7 to 12) is the first who reports that he was born in Egypt, educated in Alexandria, and that he spread his doctrine in Egypt before he went to Rome. Epiphanius adds that he later left Rome for Cyprus. Clement of Alexandria has six fragments of his writings incorporated into his Stromata: two of them are from his letters, two from his homilies, and two of them do not give any indication from which of his writings they are taken.

Quasten also states: “Valentinus found many followers both in the East and in the West. Hippolytus speaks of two schools, an Oriental and an Italian.” (Patrology, v. 1, p. 261)

Bentley Layton expounds (The Gnostic Scriptures, pp. 221-222):

Three sides of Valentinus’ literary personality emerge in these remains. First, there is the mythmaker—continuing in the steps of the gnostics, but strikingly innovative so as to take account of the different brand of philosophy, a more profound acceptance of biblical and cross-centered Christianity, and a different structuring of the myth. A doctrinal résumé of Valentinus’s myth, by St. Irenaeus, survives (IrV): it is abbreviated and stops short, so no more than a hint of this side of Valentinus emerges. The myth is known in more detail in versions taught by Valentinus’s disciples. The version by Ptolemy is included in the present volume (IrPt); from it, a modern reader can get a better idea of what Valentinus’s own teaching muts have been like, though some details are doubtless due to Ptolemy’s own creativity.

Second, there is the Platonizing—or perhaps, better, gnosticizing—biblical theologian of the Fragments (VFrA-H). These eight Fragments, excerpted by ancient witnesses from Valentinus’s philosophical epistles, sermons, and treatises, show an intensity, an attention to detail, and a penchant for unexpected turns of thought that set them apart from most other literature of gnostic Christianity and Valentinianism. Despite their brevity and incompleteness, they are among the most striking remains of ancient Christian literature. Without more of the originals, it is hard to assess how far they resembled other material attributed to Valentinus. VFrA, VFrC, and VFrD relate to a mythic story of cosmic structure and creation like IrV, while VFrF and VFrH resemble more the content of GTr. However, there is very little in the Fragments that unambiguously resembles gnostic or postgnostic myth (except perhaps “the preexistent human being” in VFrC; cf. VFrD, “the form was not reproduced with perfect fidelity”).

Third, there is the mystic poet of Summer Harvest (VHr) and The Gospel of Truth (GTr). Both these works are personal and visionary. Summer Harvest is nothing less than a stylized evocation of the whole metaphysical and physical world, in seven line of verse that hover between philosophical cosmology and pure poetry. The Gospel of Truth also evokes the entire universe, but in a rhetoric that no longer bears any immediate relation to the linear, chainlike cosmology of gnostic myth or Summer Harvest. The world view of GTr is Stoic and pantheistic: that is, a universe in which all is enclosed by god, and ultimately all is god. Although it begins with formal rhetoric and continues with exhortation of the listeners, GTr ends in a purely visionary mode in which Valentinus confesses that he is already present in the “place” of repose and salvation.

Like Marcion, Valentinus held to a faith that did not fit into the orthodoxy of early Catholicism but that also does not strictly correspond to classical Gnosticism, as known from the Apocryphon of John and the bulk of the refutations of Irenaeus. Also like Marcion, Valentinus was active in Rome in the late 130s. Both Marcion and Valentinus provide us with a perspective on “Christianity as it could have been.” As it turned out, the Roman church developed doctrines that were more along the lines of apologist Justin Martyr, who arrived in Rome in 140 CE and may have had some responsibility for the fact that Valentinus never became a bishop in Rome.